Self-Regulation in Adolescents: The Role of School-Based Support, Self-Efficacy, and Negative Peer Experiences
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/PBE.2026.004Keywords
self-regulation, adolescence, social support, self-efficacy, bullying victimization, loneliness, predictors, regressionAbstract
This quantitative study examined psychosocial predictors of adolescent self-regulation using data from the 2021/2022 Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study in Poland (N = 5612). Data were collected using a standardized HBSC protocol, based on anonymous online questionnaires completed by students aged 11–17 in schools. Hierarchical regression showed that teacher and family support were positively associated with self-regulation, while self-efficacy, loneliness, and bullying victimization were negatively associated. Peer support was not a significant predictor. Contrary to some previous findings, girls reported lower self-regulation than boys. The results underscore the importance of strengthening adult support, enhancing self-efficacy, and addressing bullying victimization and loneliness to promote self-regulation development in adolescence.
References
Aguinis, H., Gottfredson, R. K., & Joo, H. (2013). Best-Practice Recommendations for Defining, Identifying, and Handling Outliers. Organizational Research Methods, 16(2), 270–301, doi: 10.1177/1094428112470848.
Bailey, R., Meland, E. A., Brion-Meisels, G., & Jones, S. M. (2019). Getting mental Science Back Into Schools: Can What We Know About Self-Regulation Help Change How We Think About “No Excuses”? Frontiers in Psychology, 10, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01885.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. Busching, R. (2024). Do Peers Matter? The Influence of Peers’ Self-Regulation on Individual Self-Regulation: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis. Frontiers in developmental Psychology, 2, doi: 10.3389/fdpys.2024.1371500.
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 139(4), 735–765, doi: 10.1037/a0030737.
Cosma, A., Stevens, G., Martin, G., Duinhof, E. L., Walsh, S. D., Garcia-Moya, I.,Koltő, A., Gobina, I., Canale, N., Catunda, C., Inchley, J., & de Looze, M. (2020). Cross-National Time Trends in Adolescent Mental Well-Being From 2002 To 2018 and the Explanatory Role of Schoolwork Pressure. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(6S), S50–S58, doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.02.010.
Coyne, M. A., Vaske, J. C., Boisvert, D. L., & Wright, J. P. (2015). Sex Differences in the Stability of Self-Regulation Across Childhood. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 1(1), 4–20, doi: 10.1007/s40865-015-0001-6.
Cumming, M. M., Bettini, E., Pham, A. V., & Park, J. (2020). School-, Classroom- and Dyadic-Level Experiences: A Literature Review of Their Relationship with Students’ Executive Functioning Development. Review of Educational Research, 90(1), 47–94, doi: 10.3102/0034654319891400.
Currie, C., Inchley, J., Molcho, M., Lenzi, M., Veselska, Z., & Wild, F. (2014). Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) Study Protocol: Background, Methodology and Mandatory Items for the 2013/14 Survey. Child and Adolescent Health Research Unit.
D’Amico, A., & Geraci, A. (2023). Beyond Emotional Intelligence: The New Construct of Meta-Emotional Intelligence. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1096663, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096663.
Di Giunta, L., Lunetti, C., Lansford, J. E., Eisenberg, N., Pastorelli, C., Bacchini, D., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Iselin, A.-M. R., Basili, E., Gliozzo, G., Favini, A., Crimiele, F., & Remondi, C. (2023). Predictors and Outcomes Associated With the Growth Curves of Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Regard To Anger and Sadness Regulation During Adolescence: A Longitudinal Cross-Cultural Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1010358, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1010358.
Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J. L., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Self-Control and Academic Achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 373–399, doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103230.
Eres, R., Lim, M. H., Lanham, S., Jillard, C., & Bates, G. (2021). Loneliness and Emotion Regulation: Implications of Having Social Anxiety Disorder. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(1), 46–56, doi: 10.1080/00049530.2021.1904498.
Farley, J. P., & Kim-Spoon, J. (2014). The Development of Adolescent Self-Regulation: Reviewing the Role of Parent, Peer, Friend, and Romantic Relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 37(4), 433–440, doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.009.
Garcia-Moya, I., Diez, M., & Paniagua, C. (2023). Stress of School Performance Among Secondary Students: The Role of Classroom Goal Structures and Teacher Support. Journal of School Psychology, 99, 101222, doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2023.05.005.
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2010). SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference (17.0 Update). Allyn & Bacon.
Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218–227, doi: 10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8.
Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The Influence of Academic Self-Efficacy on Academic Performance: A Systematic Review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63–84, doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002.
Hosseini-Kamkar, N., & Morton, J. B. (2014). Sex Differences in Self-Regulation: An Evolutionary Perspective. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00233.
Karlsson Linner, R., Mallard, T. T., Barr, P. B., Sanchez-Roige, S., Madole, J. W., Driver, M. N., Poore, H. E., de Vlaming, R., Grotzinger, A. D., Tielbeek, J. J., Johnson, E. C., Liu, M., Rosenthal, S. B., Ideker, T., Zhou, H., Kember, R. L., Pasman, J. A., Verweij, K. J. H., Liu, D. J., & Dick, D. M. (2021). Multivariate Analysis of 1.5 Million People Identifies Genetic Associations with Traits Related To Self-Regulation and Addiction. Nature Neuroscience, 24(10), 1367–1376, doi: 10.1038/s41593-021-00908-3.
Keskin, G., & Branje, S. (2022). Longitudinal Relations Between Maternal and Adolescent Emotion Dysregulation and Maternal Autonomy Support. Journal of Adolescence, 94(6), 811–828, doi: 10.1002/jad.12065.
King, K. M., McLaughlin, K. A., Silk, J., & Monahan, K. C. (2018). Peer Effects on Self-Regulation in Adolescence Depend on the Nature and Quality of the Peer Interaction. Development and Psychopathology, 30(4), 1389–1401, doi: 10.1017/S0954579417001560.
Klinge, J. L., Warschburger, P., Busching, R., & Klein, A. M. (2023). Self-Regulation Facets Differentially Predict Internalizing Symptom Trajectories From Middle Childhood To Early Adolescence: A Longitudinal Multimethod Study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 17(1), 120, doi: 10.1186/s13034-023-00670-3.
Li, J.-B., Bi, S.-S., Willems, Y. E., & Finkenauer, C. (2021). The Association Between School Discipline and Self-Control From Preschoolers To High School Students: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 91(1), 73–111, doi: 10.3102/0034654320979160.
Li, J.-B., Willems, Y. E., Stok, F. M., Deković, M., Bartels, M., & Finkenauer, C. (2019). Parenting and Self-Control Across Early To Late Adolescence: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(6), 967–1005, doi: 10.1177/1745691619863046.
Maddux, J. E., & Volkmann, J. (2010). Self-Efficacy. In: Handbook of Personality and Self-Regulation (pp. 315–331). Wiley-Blackwell, doi: 10.1002/9781444318111.ch14.
Maich, K., Davies, A. W. J., & van Rhijn, T. (2019). A Relaxation Station in Every Location. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(3), 160–165, doi: 10.1177/1053451218767916.
Maxwell, L. K., & David, C. H. (1995). The Application of the Durbin–Watson Test To the Dynamic Regression Model Under Normal and Non-Normal Errors. Econometric Reviews, 14(4), 487–510. doi: 10.1080/07474939508800333.
Meilstrup, C., Thygesen, L. C., Nielsen, L., Koushede, V., Cross, D., & Holstein, B. E. (2016). Does Self-Efficacy Mediate the Association Between Socioeconomic Background and Emotional Symptoms Among Schoolchildren? International Journal of Public Health, 61(4), 505–512. doi: 10.1007/s00038-016-0790-3.
Menard, S. (2002). Applied Logistic Regression Analysis. SAGE Publications. doi: 10.4135/9781412983433.
Moilanen, K. L., & Manuel, M. L. (2017). Parenting, Self-Regulation and Social Competence With Peers and Romantic Partners. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 49, 46–54, doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2017.02.003.
Muenks, K., Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2018). I Can Do This! The Development and Calibration of Children’s Expectations for Success and Competence Beliefs. Developmental Review, 48, 24–39, doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2018.04.001.
Murray, D. W., Rosanbalm, K., Christopoulos, C., & Meyer, A. L. (2019). An Applied Contextual Model for Promoting Self-Regulation Enactment Across Development: Implications for Prevention, Public Health and Future Research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 40(4), 367–403, doi: 10.1007/s10935-019-00556-1.
Nigg, J. T. (2017). Annual Research Review: On the Relations Among Self-Regulation, Self-Control, Executive Functioning, Effortful Control, Cognitive Control, Impulsivity, Risk-Taking, and Inhibition for Developmental Psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(4), 361–383, doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12675.
Novak, S. P., & Clayton, R. R. (2001). The Influence of School Environment and Self-Regulation on Transitions Between Stages of Cigarette Smoking: A Multilevel Analysis. Health Psychology, 20(3), 196–207, doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.20.3.196.
Paley, B., & Hajal, N. J. (2022). Conceptualizing Emotion Regulation and Coregulation As Family-Level Phenomena. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(1), 19–43, doi: 10.1007/s10567-022-00378-4.
Peng, S., Tao, D., & Xuan, B. (2023). Social Rejection But Not Ostracism Increases Cognitive Effort Avoidance. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16, 2829–2839, doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S414450.
Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K., & Allen, J. P. (2012). Teacher–Student Relationships and Engagement: Conceptualizing CLASS. In: S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Student Engagement (pp. 365–386). Springer.
Piccolo, L. R., Merz, E. C., Noble, K. G., & Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics Study (2019). School Climate Is Associated with Cortical Thickness and Executive Function In Children and Adolescents. Developmental Science, 22(1), e12719, doi: 10.1111/desc.12719.
Ratliff, E. L., Morris, A. S., Cui, L., Jespersen, J. E., Silk, J. S., & Criss, M. M. (2023). Supportive Parent–Adolescent Relationships As a Foundation for Adolescent Emotion Regulation and Adjustment. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1193449. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1193449.
Robson, D. A., Allen, M. S., & Howard, S. J. (2020). Self-Regulation in Childhood As a Predictor of Future Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 146(4), 324–354, doi: 10.1037/bul0000227.
Rodzeń, W., & Gajda, M. (2024). Research on the Polish Short Version of the Self-Regulation Scale: A Study Across Adolescents and Adults With Three Independent Samples. Current Issues in Personality Psychology, doi: 10.5114/cipp/194596.
Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2022). Academic Self-Efficacy. In: Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools, 3rd ed. (pp. 268–282). Routledge, doi: 10.4324/9781003013778-21.
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). General Self-Efficacy Scale [Dataset], doi: 10.1037/t00393-000.
Solberg, M. E., & Olweus, D. (2003). Prevalence Estimation of School Bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 239–268, doi: 10.1002/ab.10047.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2019). Using Multivariate Statistics, 7th ed.. Pearson.
Tomova, L., Andrews, J. L., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2021). The Importance of Belonging and the Avoidance of Social Risk-Taking in Adolescence. Developmental Review, 61, 100981, doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2021.100981.
Torsheim, T., Samdal, O., Rasmussen, M., Freeman, J., Griebler, R., & Dur, W. (2012). Cross-National Measurement Invariance of the Teacher and Classmate Support Scale. Social Indicators Research, 105(1), 145–160, doi: 10.1007/s11205-010-9770-9.
Toussaint, L., Nguyen, Q.A., Roettger, C., Dixon, K., Offenbacher, M., Kohls, N., Hirsch, J., & Sirois, F. (2021). Effectiveness of Progressive Muscle Relaxation, Deep Breathing, and Guided Imagery. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 5924040, doi: 10.1155/2021/5924040.
Trautner, M., & Schwinger, M. (2020). Integrating Self-Efficacy and Motivation Regulation. Learning and Individual Differences, 80, 101890, doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101890.
Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of School-Based Programs To Reduce Bullying. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(1), 27–56, doi: 10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1.
Wang, H., Sun, Y., Zhao, X., Wang, W., & Xue, J. (2024). Enhancing Academic Engagement Through Students’ Perceptions of Teacher Expectations: The Mediating Role of Intentional Self-Regulation in Middle School. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1456334.
Van Ryzin, M. J., & Roseth, C. J. (2018). Cooperative Learning in Middle School: A Means To Improve Peer Relations and Reduce Victimization, Bullying, and Related Outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(8), 1192–1201, doi: 10.1037/edu0000265.
van Tetering, M. A. J., van der Laan, A. M., de Kogel, C. H., de Groot, R. H. M., & Jolles, J. (2020). Sex Differences in Self-Regulation in Early, Middle and Late Adolescence: A Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS ONE, 15(1), e0227607, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227607.
Vancampfort, D., Ashdown-Franks, G., Smith, L., Firth, J., Van Damme, T., Christiaansen, L., Stubbs, B., & Koyanagi, A. (2019). Leisure-Time Sedentary Behavior and Loneliness Among Adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 251, 149–155, doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2019.03.076.
Vandenbroucke, L., Spilt, J., Verschueren, K., Piccinin, C., & Baeyens, D. (2018). The Classroom As a Developmental Context for Cognitive Development: A Meta- Analysis on Teacher–Student Interactions and Executive Functions. Review of Educational Research, 88(1), 125–164, doi: 10.3102/0034654317743200.
Weidner, G., Sieverding, M., & Chesney, M. A. (2016). The Role of Self-Regulation in Health and Illness. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 21(2), 135–137. doi: 10.1080/13548506.2015.1115528.
Wesarg-Menzel, C., Ebbes, R., Hensums, M., Wagemaker, E., Zachariou, M. S., Stacks, J. E., van den Akker, A. L., Visser, I., den Hoove, M., Brummelman, E., Dekkers, T., Schutten, J., Larsen, H., Colonnese, C., Jansen, B. R. J., Overbeek, G., Huizenga, H. M., & Wiers, R. W. (2023). Development and Socialization of Self-Regulation From Infancy To Adolescence. Developmental Review, 69, 101090, doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2023.101090.
Westermann, N., Busching, R., Klein, A. M., & Warschburger, P. (2024). The Longitudinal Interplay Between Adverse Peer Experiences and Self-Regulation Facets. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 52(2), 293–308, doi: 10.1007/s10802-023-01117-1.
Willems, Y. E., Boesen, N., Li, J., Finkenauer, C., & Bartels, M. (2019). The Heritability of Self-Control: A Meta-Analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 100, 324–334, doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.012.
Williams, C., Griffin, K. W., Botvin, C. M., Sousa, S., & Botvin, G. J. (2024). Self-Regulation As a Protective Factor Against Bullying During Early Adolescence. Youth, 4(2), doi: 10.3390/youth4020033.
Wilson, S. V., Szwedo, D. E., & Allen, J. P. (2024). Interparental and Parent–Teen Relationships During Adolescence As Predictors of Emotion Regulation. Youth, 4(4), 1417–1436, doi: 10.3390/youth4040090.
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets That Promote Resilience: When Students Believe That Personal Characteristics Can Be Developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–314, doi: 10.1080/00461520.2012.722805.
Zheng, Y., Rollano, C., Bagnall, C., Bond, C., Song, J., & Qualter, P. (2024). Loneliness and Teacher–Student Relationships in Children and Adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 107, 101380, doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101380.
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2.
Zondervan-Zwijnenburg, M. A. J., Richards, J. S., Kevenaar, S. T., Becht, A. I., Hoijtink, H. J. A., Oldehinkel, A. J., Branje, S., Meeus, W., & Boomsma, D. I. (2020). Robust Longitudinal Multi-Cohort Results: The Development of Self-Control During Adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 45, 100817, doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100817.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Maja Gajda
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Stats
Number of views and downloads: 6
Number of citations: 0
