Comparison of Mesopotamian and Israelite Images of the Netherworld

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to compare the image of the Netherworld in Mesopotamian mythology and biblical literature. The location of the Netherworld is similar in both cultures: it was located beneath the earth's surface and beneath the waters of a mythical primeval ocean. Both traditions also contain texts suggesting it was located directly beneath the earth's surface, with graves and various pits serving as "gateways" to the afterlife. Regarding the "landscape" and the condition of the dead persons, both traditions are characterized by a negative perception of the afterlife as a place of darkness and dust, with the afterlife being a shadow of earthly life. However, the details differ. In Mesopotamia, the underworld is depicted as an ancient city with a mythical river, seven or fourteen gates, and a palace for the ruler Ereshkigal, reflecting an urban mentality. A social hierarchy existed there, similar to that in the world of the living, and the fate of the dead could be improved by a dignified burial and family sacrifices, especially a large number of offspring. Mesopotamian texts focus on the fate of the individual. In biblical literature, Sheol is more of a wasteland, a mass grave, or cemetery, and its image is more nebulous and heterogeneous. Differences in fate after death are theological and ethical in nature, often serving to illustrate the fate of nations hostile to Israel and to manifest YHWH's rule.

The relationship of God/gods to the Netherworld reveals the greatest differences. In Mesopotamia, characterized by polytheism, the underworld was inhabited by many gods, and the gods of heaven and earth held no power there, and attempts to seize it ended tragically. In the biblical tradition, as absolute monotheism developed, the idea of ​​YHWH's dominion over Sheol and the dead gradually evolved, leading to the emergence of the idea of ​​resurrection. Initially, YHWH had no authority over this realm, and the dead were not allowed to worship him.