Smart drugs among students – multidimensional view on present ways of cognitive enhancement
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/JEHS.2023.49.01.007Keywords
nootropic agents, students, academic performanceAbstract
Background: Nootropic drugs, at the beginning of their career, were used in the treatment of diseases such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Alzheimer's disease and narcolepsy. Nowadays, they are becoming more and more popular among students, where they are often called smart drugs or cognitive enhancers. Their properties that improve intellectual abilities and cognitive functions are used to, among other things, improve academic performance.
Aim of the study: The purpose of this article was to summarize the current state of knowledge relating to the use of smart drugs among students. This study discusses the multidimensional issues of using this group of drugs.
Material and methods: A cross-sectional search of relevant literature was performed in databases using accepted wording. Publications from 2003-2023 were included. The entire process has been supplemented with additional procedures to increase the reliability of this publication.
Results: In most sources, the most common representative of smart drugs turned out to be methylphenidate. Nootropics were most often obtained by obtaining a prescription from a doctor, online trading or from friends. The factors motivating the use of substances from this group are primarily the desire to improve academic results, competitiveness and the number of obligations at the university. There are many risks associated with their use, but students are more aware of the positive effects.
Conclusion: This paper presents various dimensions of the progressive spread of nootropic drugs. In addition to their undeniably positive effects, there are many risks, which are discussed in this article. Students' awareness should be formed through appropriate educational methods.
References
Sahakian BJ, Morein-Zamir S. Pharmacological cognitive enhancement: treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders and lifestyle use by healthy people. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015 Apr;2(4):357-62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00004-8
Hildt E. Cognitive enhancement–A critical look at the recent debate. Cognitive enhancement. Netherlands: Springer; 2013. pp. 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6253-4_1
Morelli M, Tognotti E. Brief history of the medical and non-medical use of amphetamine-like psychostimulants. Exp Neurol. 2021 Aug;342:113754.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113754
Schifano F, Catalani V, Sharif S, Napoletano F, Corkery JM, Arillotta D, Fergus S, Vento A, Guirguis A. Benefits and Harms of 'Smart Drugs' (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals. Drugs. 2022 Apr;82(6):633-647.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-022-01701-7
Mache S, Eickenhorst P, Vitzthum K, Klapp BF, Groneberg DA. Cognitive-enhancing substance use at German universities: frequency, reasons and gender differences. Wien Med Wochenschr. 2012 Jun;162(11-12):262-71.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10354-012-0115-y
Maier LJ, Liechti ME, Herzig F, Schaub MP. To dope or not to dope: neuroenhancement with prescription drugs and drugs of abuse among Swiss university students. PLoS One. 2013 Nov 13;8(11):e77967.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077967
Scahill L, Carroll D, Burke K. Methylphenidate: mechanism of action and clinical update. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2004 Apr-Jun;17(2):85-6.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2004.00085.x
Hannestad J, Gallezot JD, Planeta-Wilson B, Lin SF, Williams WA, van Dyck CH, Malison RT, Carson RE, Ding YS. Clinically relevant doses of methylphenidate significantly occupy norepinephrine transporters in humans in vivo. Biol Psychiatry. 2010 Nov 1;68(9):854-60.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.017
Markowitz JS, DeVane CL, Pestreich LK, Patrick KS, Muniz R. A comprehensive in vitro screening of d-, l-, and dl-threo-methylphenidate: an exploratory study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2006 Dec;16(6):687-98.
https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.687
Carlier J, Giorgetti R, Varì MR, Pirani F, Ricci G, Busardò FP. Use of cognitive enhancers: methylphenidate and analogs. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2019 Jan;23(1):3-15.
https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_201901_16741
Wetzell BB, Muller MM, Cobuzzi JL, Hurwitz ZE, DeCicco-Skinner K, Riley AL. Effect of age on methylphenidate-induced conditioned taste avoidance and related BDNF/TrkB signaling in the insular cortex of the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2014 Apr;231(8):1493-501.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3500-y
Amiri A, Torabi Parizi G, Kousha M, Saadat F, Modabbernia MJ, Najafi K, Atrkar Roushan Z. Changes in plasma Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels induced by methylphenidate in children with Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013 Dec 2;47:20-4.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.07.018
Réus GZ, Scaini G, Jeremias GC, Furlanetto CB, Morais MO, Mello-Santos LM, Quevedo J, Streck EL. Brain apoptosis signaling pathways are regulated by methylphenidate treatment in young and adult rats. Brain Res. 2014 Oct 2;1583:269-76.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.010
Motaghinejad M, Motevalian M, Falak R, Heidari M, Sharzad M, Kalantari E. Neuroprotective effects of various doses of topiramate against methylphenidate-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in isolated rat amygdala: the possible role of CREB/BDNF signaling pathway. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2016 Dec;123(12):1463-1477.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1619-1
Coelho-Santos V, Socodato R, Portugal C, Leitão RA, Rito M, Barbosa M, Couraud PO, Romero IA, Weksler B, Minshall RD, Fontes-Ribeiro C, Summavielle T, Relvas JB, Silva AP. Methylphenidate-triggered ROS generation promotes caveolae-mediated transcytosis via Rac1 signaling and c-Src-dependent caveolin-1 phosphorylation in human brain endothelial cells. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2016 Dec;73(24):4701-4716.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-016-2301-3
Lynch G, Palmer LC, Gall CM. The likelihood of cognitive enhancement. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2011 Aug;99(2):116-29.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2010.12.024
Ishizuka T, Sakamoto Y, Sakurai T, Yamatodani A. Modafinil increases histamine release in the anterior hypothalamus of rats. Neurosci Lett. 2003 Mar 20;339(2):143-6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00006-5
Kelley AM, Webb CM, Athy JR, Ley S, Gaydos S. Cognition enhancement by modafinil: a meta-analysis. Aviat Space Environ Med. 2012 Jul;83(7):685-90.
https://doi.org/10.3357/asem.3212.2012
Sousa A, Dinis-Oliveira RJ. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic of the cognitive enhancer modafinil: Relevant clinical and forensic aspects. Subst Abus. 2020;41(2):155-173.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2019.1700584
Lindsay SE, Gudelsky GA, Heaton PC. Use of modafinil for the treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Ann Pharmacother. 2006 Oct;40(10):1829-33.
https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1h024
Ballon JS, Feifel D. A systematic review of modafinil: Potential clinical uses and mechanisms of action. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006 Apr;67(4):554-66.
https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v67n0406
Malykh AG, Sadaie MR. Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders. Drugs. 2010 Feb 12;70(3):287-312.
https://doi.org/10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000
Marisco PC, Carvalho FB, Rosa MM, Girardi BA, Gutierres JM, Jaques JA, Salla AP, Pimentel VC, Schetinger MR, Leal DB, Mello CF, Rubin MA. Piracetam prevents scopolamine-induced memory impairment and decrease of NTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase and adenosine deaminase activities. Neurochem Res. 2013 Aug;38(8):1704-14.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-013-1072-6
Leuner K, Kurz C, Guidetti G, Orgogozo JM, Müller WE. Improved mitochondrial function in brain aging and Alzheimer disease - the new mechanism of action of the old metabolic enhancer piracetam. Front Neurosci. 2010 Sep 7;4:44.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2010.00044
Keil U, Scherping I, Hauptmann S, Schuessel K, Eckert A, Müller WE. Piracetam improves mitochondrial dysfunction following oxidative stress. Br J Pharmacol. 2006 Jan;147(2):199-208.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706459
Esposito M, Cocimano G, Ministrieri F, Rosi GL, Nunno ND, Messina G, Sessa F, Salerno M. Smart drugs and neuroenhancement: what do we know? Front Biosci (Landmark Ed). 2021 Aug 30;26(8):347-359.
Teter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ. Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration. Pharmacotherapy. 2006 Oct;26(10):1501-10.
https://doi.org/10.1592/phco.26.10.1501
White BP, Becker-Blease KA, Grace-Bishop K. Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. J Am Coll Health. 2006 Mar-Apr;54(5):261-8.
https://doi.org/10.3200/jach.54.5.261-268
Miranda M, Barbosa M. Use of Cognitive Enhancers by Portuguese Medical Students: Do Academic Challenges Matter? Acta Med Port. 2022 Apr 1;35(4):257-263.
https://doi.org/10.20344/amp.14220
Micoulaud-Franchi JA, MacGregor A, Fond G. A preliminary study on cognitive enhancer consumption behaviors and motives of French Medicine and Pharmacology students. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2014 Jul;18(13):1875-8.
Nelson M, Jensen C, Lenton S. Study drug use among university students in Western Australia: Results of a web survey and their policy and practice implications. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2021 May;40(4):530-539.
https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13190
Merwid-Ląd A, Passon M, Drymluch P, Głuszyński M, Szeląg A, Matuszewska A. Do Medical Universities Students Use Cognitive Enhancers while Learning?-Conclusions from the Study in Poland. Life (Basel). 2023 Mar 17;13(3):820.
https://doi.org/10.3390/life13030820
Adamopoulos P, Ho H, Sykes G, Szekely P, Dommett EJ. Learning Approaches and Attitudes Toward Cognitive Enhancers in UK University Students. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2020 Jul-Aug;52(3):248-254.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1742949
Jensen C, Forlini C, Partridge B, Hall W. Australian University Students' Coping Strategies and Use of Pharmaceutical Stimulants as Cognitive Enhancers. Front Psychol. 2016 Mar 1;7:277.
https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2016.00277
Batistela S, Bueno OFA, Vaz LJ, Galduróz JCF. Methylphenidate as a cognitive enhancer in healthy young people. Dement Neuropsychol. 2016 Apr-Jun;10(2):134-142.
https://doi.org/10.1590/s1980-5764-2016dn1002009
Schelle KJ, Faulmüller N, Caviola L, Hewstone M. Attitudes toward pharmacological cognitive enhancement-a review. Front Syst Neurosci. 2014 Apr 17;8:53.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00053
Myrseth H, Pallesen S, Torsheim T, Erevik EK. Prevalence and correlates of stimulant and depressant pharmacological cognitive enhancement among Norwegian students. Nordisk Alkohol Nark. 2018 Oct;35(5):372-387.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1455072518778493
Franke AG, Lehmberg S, Soyka M. Pharmacological Neuroenhancement: teachers' knowledge and attitudes-Results from a survey study among teachers in Germany. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2016 Sep 20;11(1):32.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-016-0077-y
Pacifici R, Palmi I, Vian P, Andreotti A, Mortali C, Berretta P, Mastrobattista L, Pichini S. Emerging trends in consuming behaviours for non-controlled substances by Italian urban youth: a cross sectional study. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 2016;52(1):104-13.
https://doi.org/10.4415/ann_16_01_17
London-Nadeau K, Chan P, Wood S. Building Conceptions of Cognitive Enhancement: University Students' Views on the Effects of Pharmacological Cognitive Enhancers. Subst Use Misuse. 2019;54(6):908-920.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Piotr Pisera, Aleksandra Kiełkowicz, Filip Pactwa, Zuzanna Popińska, Bartłomiej Żmuda, Daniel Ślusarczyk, Wiktoria Jakubowska, Michał Żuberek
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The periodical offers access to content in the Open Access system under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
Stats
Number of views and downloads: 537
Number of citations: 0
