Aetiology, diagnosis and management of halitosis – a narrative review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/JEHS.2023.13.01.035Keywords
halitosis, malodour, volatile sulphur compounds, mouthwashes, microbiota, periodontitisAbstract
Objectives
The present study aimed to present an overview of the aetiology of oral malodour and the diagnostic and treatment procedures.
Design
A comprehensive review of scientific literature (up to December 2021) was conducted using Medline and PubMed databases and Google Scholar, including checking reference lists of journal articles by hand-searching. Results are presented descriptively for halitosis's aetiology, diagnosis and clinical management.
Results
The origin of the foul odour problem is mainly due to intra-oral causes, while only a proportion of cases result from additional systemic problems. In some cases, the problem can be caused by co-existing oral and extraoral problems. Evidence suggests that the leading cause of intra-oral halitosis is the anaerobic microorganisms present in the tongue plaque. Less commonly, the foul odour is due to poor oral hygiene and periodontitis.
Conclusion
The origin of the foul odour problem is mainly due to intra-oral causes, while only a proportion of cases result from additional systemic problems. Dentists need to analyse and treat the oral problems that may be responsible for the patient's malodour, as well as inform the patient about the causes of the foul odour and oral hygiene procedures (flossing, tongue cleaning, selection and use of appropriate mouthwash and toothpaste). If the problem persists, they should know whom to refer the patient to for further diagnosis. It is reasonable to organise consultations on halitosis in a multidisciplinary setting - periodontists, otolaryngologists (ENT specialists), internal medicine specialists, gastroenterologists, psychiatrists, psychologists and others.
References
Acar, B., Berker, E., Tan, Ç., İlarslan, Y. D., Tekçiçek, M., & Tezcan, İ. (2019). Effects of oral prophylaxis including tongue cleaning on halitosis and gingival inflammation in gingivitis patients-a randomised controlled clinical trial. Clinical oral investigations, 23(4), 1829–1836. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-018-2617-5
Ademovski, S. E., Persson, G. R., Winkel, E., Tangerman, A., Lingström, P., & Renvert, S. (2013). The short-term treatment effects on the microbiota at the dorsum of the tongue in intra-oral halitosis patients--a randomised clinical trial. Clinical oral investigations, 17(2), 463–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-012-0728-y
Akkaoui, S., & Ennibi, O. K. (2017). Use of traditional plants in management of halitosis in a Moroccan population. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology, 6(3), 267–273. https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20170522103525
Albuquerque, D. F., de Souza Tolentino, E., Amado, F. M., Arakawa, C., & Chinellato, L. E. (2010). Evaluation of halitosis and sialometry in patients submitted to head and neck radiotherapy. Medicina oral, patologia oral y cirugia bucal, 15(6), e850–e854. https://doi.org/10.4317/medoral.15.e850
Alkhouri, N., Cikach, F., Eng, K., Moses, J., Patel, N., Yan, C., Hanouneh, I., Grove, D., Lopez, R., & Dweik, R. (2014). Analysis of breath volatile organic compounds as a noninvasive tool to diagnose nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in children. European journal of gastroenterology & hepatology, 26(1), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1097/MEG.0b013e3283650669
AlSadhan S. A. (2016). Self-perceived halitosis and related factors among adults residing in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A cross-sectional study. The Saudi dental journal, 28(3), 118–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sdentj.2016.06.001
Amano, A., Yoshida, Y., Oho, T., & Koga, T. (2002). We are monitoring ammonia to assess halitosis. Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics, 94(6), 692–696. https://doi.org/10.1067/moe.2002.126911
Amou, T., Hinode, D., Yoshioka, M., & Grenier, D. (2014). Relationship between halitosis and periodontal disease - associated oral bacteria in tongue coatings. International journal of dental hygiene, 12(2), 145–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/idh.12046
Anbari, F., Ashouri Moghaddam, A., Sabeti, E., & Khodabakhshi, A. (2019). Halitosis: Helicobacter pylori or oral factors. Helicobacter, 24(1), e12556. https://doi.org/10.1111/hel.12556
Anuradha, B. R., Katta, S., Kode, V. S., Praveena, C., Sathe, N., Sandeep, N., & Penumarty, S. (2015). Oral and salivary changes in patients with chronic kidney disease: A clinical and biochemical study. Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology, 19(3), 297–301. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-124X.154178
Aydin, M., & Harvey-Woodworth, C. N. (2014). Halitosis: a new definition and classification. British dental journal, 217(1), E1. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2014.552
Barić, I., Staufner, C., Augoustides-Savvopoulou, P., Chien, Y. H., Dobbelaere, D., Grünert, S. C., Opladen, T., Petković Ramadža, D., Rakić, B., Wedell, A., & Blom, H. J. (2017). Consensus recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of inherited methylation disorders. Journal of inherited metabolic disease, 40(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10545-016-9972-7
Basavaraj, P., Khuller, N. (2011). Halitosis: A review. Indian journal of stomatology, 2(3), 183-6.
Begum, M., & McKenna, P. J. (2011). Olfactory reference syndrome: a systematic review of the world literature. Psychological medicine, 41(3), 453–461. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710001091
Berchier, C. E., Slot, D. E., & Van der Weijden, G. A. (2010). The efficacy of 0.12% chlorhexidine mouthrinse compared with 0.2% on plaque accumulation and periodontal parameters: a systematic review. Journal of clinical periodontology, 37(9), 829–839. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-051X.2010.01575.x
Bicak D. A. (2018). A Current Approach to Halitosis and Oral Malodor- A Mini Review. The open dentistry journal, 12, 322–330. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874210601812010322
Bollen, C. M., & Beikler, T. (2012). Halitosis: the multidisciplinary approach. International journal of oral science, 4(2), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijos.2012.39
Booth, J., & Hurry, J. (2020). The impact of a vegan diet on oral health. BDJ Team 7(18–19). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41407-020-0372-3
Bornstein, M. M., Kislig, K., Hoti, B. B., Seemann, R., & Lussi, A. (2009). Prevalence of halitosis in the population of the city of Bern, Switzerland: a study comparing self-reported and clinical data. European journal of oral sciences, 117(3), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0722.2009.00630.x
Bradshaw, D. J., Perring, K. D., Cawkill, P. M., Provan, A. F., McNulty, D. A., Saint, E. J., Richards, J., Munroe, M. J., & Behan, J. M. (2005). Creation of oral care flavours to deliver breath-freshening benefits. Oral diseases, 11 Suppl 1, 75–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2005.01098.x
Burton, J. P., Chilcott, C. N., Moore, C. J., Speiser, G., & Tagg, J. R. (2006). A preliminary study of the effect of probiotic Streptococcus salivarius K12 on oral malodour parameters. Journal of applied microbiology, 100(4), 754–764. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02837.x.
Calil, C. M., Oliveira, G. M., Cogo, K., Pereira, A. C., Marcondes, F. K., & Groppo, F. C. (2014). Effects of stress hormones on the production of volatile sulfur compounds by periodontopathogenic bacteria. Brazilian oral research, 28, S1806-83242014000100228. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-3107bor-2014.vol28.0008
Caygur, A., Albaba, M. R., Berberoglu, A., & Yilmaz, H. G. (2017). Efficacy of glycine powder air-polishing combined with scaling and root planing in the treatment of periodontitis and halitosis: A randomised clinical study. The Journal of international medical research, 45(3), 1168–1174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060517705540
Coffey, J., Choudhry, M., Shlossman, M., Makin, I., & Singh, V. K. (2016). Multiplex real-time PCR detection and relative quantification of periodontal pathogens. Clinical and experimental dental research, 2(3), 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/cre2.37
Cortelli, J. R., Barbosa, M. D., & Westphal, M. A. (2008). Halitosis: a review of associated factors and therapeutic approach. Brazilian oral research, 22 Suppl 1, 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1806-83242008000500007
Davies, A., & Epstein, J. (2010), Oral Complications of Cancer and its Management. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28 Aug. 2021, from https://oxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/med/9780199543588.001.0001/med-9780199543588.
De Geest, S., Laleman, I., Teughels, W., Dekeyser, C., & Quirynen, M. (2016). Periodontal diseases as a source of halitosis: a review of the evidence and treatment approaches for dentists and dental hygienists. Periodontology 2000, 71(1), 213–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/prd.12111
Dobler, D., Runkel, F., & Schmidts, T. (2020). Effect of essential oils on oral halitosis treatment: a review. European journal of oral sciences, 128(6), 476–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/eos.12745
Donaldson, A. C., McKenzie, D., Riggio, M. P., Hodge, P. J., Rolph, H., Flanagan, A., & Bagg, J. (2005). Microbiological culture analysis of the tongue anaerobic microflora in subjects with and without halitosis. Oral diseases, 11 Suppl 1, 61–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2005.01094.x
Erovic Ademovski, S., Lingström, P., Winkel, E., Tangerman, A., Persson, G. R., & Renvert, S. (2012). Comparison of different treatment modalities for oral halitosis. Acta odontologica Scandinavica, 70(3), 224–233. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016357.2011.635601
Feng, X., Chen, X., Cheng, R., Sun, L., Zhang, Y., & He, T. (2010). Breath malodor reduction with use of a stannous-containing sodium fluoride dentifrice: a meta-analysis of four randomized and controlled clinical trials. American journal of dentistry, 23 Spec No B, 27B–31B.
Feusner, J. D., Phillips, K. A., & Stein, D. J. (2010). Olfactory reference syndrome: issues for DSM-V. Depression and anxiety, 27(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20688
Frascella, J., Gilbert, R. D., Fernandez, P., & Hendler, J. (2000). Efficacy of a chlorine dioxide-containing mouthrinse in oral malodor. Compendium of continuing education in dentistry (Jamesburg, N.J. : 1995), 21(3), 241–256.
Greenberg, J. L., Shaw, A. M., Reuman, L., Schwartz, R., & Wilhelm, S. (2016). Clinical features of olfactory reference syndrome: An internet-based study. Journal of psychosomatic research, 80, 11–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.11.001
Greenman, J., Lenton, P., Seemann, R., & Nachnani, S. (2014). Organoleptic assessment of halitosis for dental professionals--general recommendations. Journal of breath research, 8(1), 017102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/8/1/017102
Gülşen M. (2012). Ağız kokusu (Halitozis). güncel gastroenteroloji, 16(3), 199-210.
Hampelska, K., Jaworska, M. M., Babalska, Z. Ł., & Karpiński, T. M. (2020). The Role of Oral Microbiota in Intra-Oral Halitosis. Journal of clinical medicine, 9(8), 2484. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9082484
Hartley, G., Mckenzie, C., Greenman, J., ElMaaytah, M. A., Scully, C., & Porter, S. (1999). Tongue Microbiota and Malodour: Effects of Metronidazole Mouthrinse on Tongue Microbiota and Breath Odour. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, 11(4), 226-232. https://doi.org/10.1080/089106099435673
Hartley, M.G., El-Maaytah, M. A., McKenzie, C., & Greenman, J. (1996). The Tongue Microbiota of Low Odour and Malodorous Individuals. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, 9(5), 215-223. https://doi.org/10.3109/08910609609166462
Hayashi, H., Akahane, T., Suzuki, H., Sasaki, T., Kawakatsu, S., & Otani, K. (2010). Successful treatment by paroxetine of delusional disorder, somatic type, accompanied by severe secondary depression. Clinical neuropharmacology, 33(1), 48–49. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNF.0b013e3181c1cfe4
Higuchi, T., Suzuki, N., Nakaya, S., Omagari, S., Yoneda, M., Hanioka, T., & Hirofuji, T. (2019). Effects of Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 combined with green tea catechins on dental caries, periodontitis, and oral malodor. Archives of oral biology, 98, 243–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2018.11.027
Hoshi, K., Yamano, Y., Mitsunaga, A., Shimizu, S., Kagawa, J., & Ogiuchi, H. (2002). Gastrointestinal diseases and halitosis: association of gastric Helicobacter pylori infection. International dental journal, 52 Suppl 3, 207–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1875-595x.2002.tb00926.x
Ito, S., Shimura, S., Tanaka, T., & Yaegaki, K. (2010). Myrsinoic acid B inhibits the production of hydrogen sulfide by periodontal pathogens in vitro. Journal of breath research, 4(2), 026005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/4/2/026005
Iwamoto, T., Suzuki, N., Tanabe, K., Takeshita, T., & Hirofuji, T. (2010). Effects of probiotic Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 on halitosis and oral health: an open-label pilot trial. Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics, 110(2), 201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tripleo.2010.03.032
Kamaraj R, D., Bhushan, K. S., & K L, V. (2014). An evaluation of microbial profile in halitosis with tongue coating using PCR (polymerase chain reaction)- a clinical and microbiological study. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research : JCDR, 8(1), 263–267. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2014/6213.3856
Kang, M. S., Kim, B. G., Chung, J., Lee, H. C., & Oh, J. S. (2006). Inhibitory effect of Weissella cibaria isolates on the production of volatile sulphur compounds. Journal of clinical periodontology, 33(3), 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-051X.2006.00893.x
Kapoor, A., Grover, V., Malhotra, R., Kaur, S., & Singh, K. (2011) Halitosis revisited. Indian Journal of Dental Sciences, 3, 102–111.
Kapoor, U., Sharma, G., Juneja, M., & Nagpal, A. (2016). Halitosis: Current concepts on etiology, diagnosis and management. European journal of dentistry, 10(2), 292–300. https://doi.org/10.4103/1305-7456.178294
Kawamoto, A., Sugano, N., Motohashi, M., Matsumoto, S., & Ito, K. (2010). Relationship between oral malodor and the menstrual cycle. Journal of periodontal research, 45(5), 681–687. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0765.2010.01285.x
Kazor, C. E., Mitchell, P. M., Lee, A. M., Stokes, L. N., Loesche, W. J., Dewhirst, F. E., & Paster, B. J. (2003). Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthy patients. Journal of clinical microbiology, 41(2), 558–563. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.41.2.558-563.2003
Kho, H. S., Lee, S. W., Chung, S. C., & Kim, Y. K. (1999). Oral manifestations and salivary flow rate, pH, and buffer capacity in patients with end-stage renal disease undergoing hemodialysis. Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics, 88(3), 316–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1079-2104(99)70035-1
Kim, S. Y., Sim, S., Kim, S. G., Park, B., & Choi, H. G. (2015). Prevalence and Associated Factors of Subjective Halitosis in Korean Adolescents. PloS one, 10(10), e0140214. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140214
Kleinberg, I., Wolff, M. S., & Codipilly, D. M. (2002). Role of saliva in oral dryness, oral feel and oral malodour. International dental journal, 52 Suppl 3, 236–240. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1875-595x.2002.tb00932.x
Kumbargere Nagraj, S., Eachempati, P., Uma, E., Singh, V. P., Ismail, N. M., & Varghese, E. (2019). Interventions for managing halitosis. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 12(12), CD012213. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012213.pub2
Laleman, I., Dadamio, J., De Geest, S., Dekeyser, C., & Quirynen, M. (2014). Instrumental assessment of halitosis for the general dental practitioner. Journal of breath research, 8(1), 017103. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/8/1/017103
Laleman, I., Koop, R., Teughels, W., Dekeyser, C., & Quirynen, M. (2018). Influence of tongue brushing and scraping on the oral microflora of periodontitis patients. Journal of periodontal research, 53(1), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/jre.12489
Lenton, P., Majerus, G., Levitt, M., & Hodges, J.S. (2004, March) Comparison of new breath-testing device to established assessment methods. Poster session presentation at the meeting of the International Association for Dental Research, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Li, Y., Lee, S., Stephens, J., Zhang, W., Suprono, M., Mwatha, A., Ward, M., & Mirza, F. (2019). A Randomized Parallel Study to Assess the Effect of Three Tongue Cleaning Modalities on Oral Malodor. The Journal of clinical dentistry, 30(Spec No A), A30–A38
Liu, P. F., Haake, S. K., Gallo, R. L., & Huang, C. M. (2009). A novel vaccine targeting Fusobacterium nucleatum against abscesses and halitosis. Vaccine, 27(10), 1589–1595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.12.058
Liu, P. F., Huang, I. F., Shu, C. W., & Huang, C. M. (2013). Halitosis vaccines targeting FomA, a biofilm-bridging protein of fusobacteria nucleatum. Current molecular medicine, 13(8), 1358–1367. https://doi.org/10.2174/15665240113139990063.
Liu, P. F., Shi, W., Zhu, W., Smith, J. W., Hsieh, S. L., Gallo, R. L., & Huang, C. M. (2010). Vaccination targeting surface FomA of Fusobacterium nucleatum against bacterial co-aggregation: Implication for treatment of periodontal infection and halitosis. Vaccine, 28(19), 3496–3505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.047
Longhini, A. B., & Ferguson, B. J. (2011). Clinical aspects of odontogenic maxillary sinusitis: a case series. International forum of allergy & rhinology, 1(5), 409–415. https://doi.org/10.1002/alr.20058
Lourith, N., & Kanlayavattanakul, M. (2010). Oral malodour and active ingredients for treatment. International journal of cosmetic science, 32(5), 321–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2010.00585.x
Magalhães, C., Viana, M., Alves, V., Nakamura, R., & Duarte, D. (2015). Pediatric atrophic rhinosinusitis: what can we do?. International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology, 79(5), 763–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2015.02.035.
Masdea, L., Kulik, E. M., Hauser-Gerspach, I., Ramseier, A. M., Filippi, A., & Waltimo, T. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of Streptococcus salivarius K12 on bacteria involved in oral malodour. Archives of oral biology, 57(8), 1041–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2012.02.011
Mazur, M., Bietolini, S., Bellardini, D., Lussi, A., Corridore, D., Maruotti, A., Ottolenghi, L., Vozza, I., & Guerra, F. (2020). Oral health in a cohort of individuals on a plant-based diet: a pilot study. La Clinica terapeutica, 171(2), e142–e148. https://doi.org/10.7417/CT.2020.2204
Mendes, L., Coimbra, J., Pereira, A. L., Resende, M., & Pinto, M. G. (2016). Comparative effect of a new mouthrinse containing chlorhexidine, triclosan and zinc on volatile sulphur compounds: a randomized, crossover, double-blind study. International journal of dental hygiene, 14(3), 202–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/idh.12132
Minh, T., Blake, D. R., & Galassetti, P. R. (2012). The clinical potential of exhaled breath analysis for diabetes mellitus. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 97(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2012.02.006
Miyazaki H., Arao M., Okamura K., Kawaguchi Y., Toyofuku A., Hoshi K., & Yaegaki K. (1999) Tentative classification of halitosis and its treatment needs. Niigata Dent. J. 29(1), 11-15
Morita, M., Musinski, D. L., & Wang, H. L. (2001). Assessment of newly developed tongue sulfide probe for detecting oral malodor. Journal of clinical periodontology, 28(5), 494–496. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-051x.2001.028005494.x
Mortazavi, H., Rahbani Nobar, B., & Shafiei, S. (2020). Drug-related Halitosis: A Systematic Review. Oral health & preventive dentistry, 18(1), 399–407. https://doi.org/10.3290/j.ohpd.a44679.
Murata, T., Yamaga, T., Iida, T., Miyazaki, H., & Yaegaki, K. (2002). Classification and examination of halitosis. International dental journal, 52 Suppl 3, 181–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1875-595x.2002.tb00921.x
Nadanovsky, P., Carvalho, L. B., & Ponce de Leon, A. (2007). Oral malodour and its association with age and sex in a general population in Brazil. Oral diseases, 13(1), 105–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2006.01257.x
Nagata, H., Inagaki, Y., Tanaka, M., Ojima, M., Kataoka, K., Kuboniwa, M., Nishida, N., Shimizu, K., Osawa, K., & Shizukuishi, S. (2008). Effect of eucalyptus extract chewing gum on periodontal health: a double-masked, randomized trial. Journal of periodontology, 79(8), 1378–1385. https://doi.org/10.1902/jop.2008.070622
Nalçacı, R., Özat, Y., Çokakoğlu, S., Türkkahraman, H., Önal, S., & Kaya, S. (2014). Effect of bracket type on halitosis, periodontal status, and microbial colonization. The Angle orthodontist, 84(3), 479–485. https://doi.org/10.2319/061913-461.1
Nani, B. D., Lima, P. O., Marcondes, F. K., Groppo, F. C., Rolim, G. S., Moraes, A. B., Cogo-Müller, K., & Franz-Montan, M. (2017). Changes in salivary microbiota increase volatile sulfur compounds production in healthy male subjects with academic-related chronic stress. PloS one, 12(3), e0173686. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173686
Outhouse T. L. (2006). A platinum standard of effectiveness in oral health care interventions: the Cochrane systematic review. General dentistry, 54(4), 228–229.
Panov, V.E., & Krasteva. A. (2012) Tongue coating in patients with gastrointestinal and liver diseases. Journal of IMAB, 18(2), 188-190. https://doi: 10.5272/jimab.2012182.188
Payne, D., Gordon, J. J., Nisbet, S., Karwal, R., & Bosma, M. L. (2011). A randomised clinical trial to assess control of oral malodour by a novel dentifrice containing 0.1%w/w o-cymen-5-ol, 0.6%w/w zinc chloride. International dental journal, 61 Suppl 3, 60–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1875-595X.2011.00051.x
Pham T. A. (2013). Comparison between self-estimated and clinical oral malodor. Acta odontologica Scandinavica, 71(1), 263–270. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016357.2012.671363
Phillips, K. A., & Menard, W. (2011). Olfactory reference syndrome: demographic and clinical features of imagined body odor. General hospital psychiatry, 33(4), 398–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2011.04.004
Pitts, G., Brogdon, C., Hu, L., Masurat, T., Pianotti, R., & Schumann, P. (1983). Mechanism of action of an antiseptic, anti-odor mouthwash. Journal of dental research, 62(6), 738–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345830620061001
Pol, A., Renkema, G. H., Tangerman, A., Winkel, E. G., Engelke, U. F., de Brouwer, A., Lloyd, K. C., Araiza, R. S., van den Heuvel, L., Omran, H., Olbrich, H., Oude Elberink, M., Gilissen, C., Rodenburg, R. J., Sass, J. O., Schwab, K. O., Schäfer, H., Venselaar, H., Sequeira, J. S., Op den Camp, H., … Wevers, R. A. (2018). Mutations in SELENBP1, encoding a novel human methanethiol oxidase, cause extraoral halitosis. Nature genetics, 50(1), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-017-0006-7
Rani, H., Ueno, M., Zaitsu, T., Furukawa, S., & Kawaguchi, Y. (2015). Factors associated with clinical and perceived oral malodor among dental students. Journal of medical and dental sciences, 62(2), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.11480/6202022015
Raven, S., Matheson, J., Huntington, E. et al. (1996). The efficacy of a combined zinc and triclosan system in the prevention of oral malodour. In: D. van Steenberghe, & D. M. Rosenberg (Eds.), Bad breath: a multidisciplinary approach (pp. 241-245). Leuven: Leuven University Press.
Rayman, S., & Almas, K. (2008). Halitosis among racially diverse populations: an update. International journal of dental hygiene, 6(1), 2–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-5037.2007.00274.x
Roldán, S., Herrera, D., & Sanz, M. (2003). Biofilms and the tongue: therapeutical approaches for the control of halitosis. Clinical oral investigations, 7(4), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-003-0214-7
Roldán, S., Herrera, D., Santa-Cruz, I., O'Connor, A., González, I., & Sanz, M. (2004). Comparative effects of different chlorhexidine mouth-rinse formulations on volatile sulphur compounds and salivary bacterial counts. Journal of clinical periodontology, 31(12), 1128–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-051X.2004.00621.x
Rosenberg M. (1996). Clinical assessment of bad breath: current concepts. Journal of the American Dental Association (1939), 127(4), 475–482. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.1996.0239
Rosenberg, M., Gelernter, I., Barki, M., & Bar-Ness, R. (1992). Day-long reduction of oral malodor by a two-phase oil:water mouthrinse as compared to chlorhexidine and placebo rinses. Journal of periodontology, 63(1), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1902/jop.1992.63.1.39
Rosenberg, M., Knaan, T., & Cohen, D. (2007). Association among bad breath, body mass index, and alcohol intake. Journal of dental research, 86(10), 997–1000. https://doi.org/10.1177/154405910708601015
Rösing, C. K., & Loesche, W. (2011). Halitosis: an overview of epidemiology, etiology and clinical management. Brazilian oral research, 25(5), 466–471. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1806-83242011000500015
Saad, S., Gomez-Pereira, P., Hewett, K., Horstman, P., Patel, J., & Greenman, J. (2016). Daily reduction of oral malodor with the use of a sonic tongue brush combined with an antibacterial tongue spray in a randomized cross-over clinical investigation. Journal of breath research, 10(1), 016013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/10/1/016013
Saad, S., Greenman, J., & Shaw, H. (2011). Comparative effects of various commercially available mouthrinse formulations on oral malodor. Oral diseases, 17(2), 180–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2010.01714.x
Sanz, M., Roldán, S., & Herrera, D. (2001). Fundamentals of breath malodour. The journal of contemporary dental practice, 2(4), 1–17.
Sara, B., Giuseppe, M., & Adelaide, C. M. (2016). Dorsal Lingual Surface and Halitosis: a Morphological Point of View. Acta stomatologica Croatica, 50(2), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.1564/asc50/2/8
Sayedi, S. J., Modaresi, M. R., & Saneian, H. (2015). Effect of Metronidazole on Halitosis of 2 to 10 Years Old Children. Iranian journal of pediatrics, 25(1), e252. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijp.252
Scully, C., & Greenman, J. (2012). Halitology (breath odour: aetiopathogenesis and management). Oral diseases, 18(4), 333–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2011.01890.x
Seemann, R., Conceicao, M. D., Filippi, A., Greenman, J., Lenton, P., Nachnani, S., Quirynen, M., Roldan, S., Schulze, H., Sterer, N., Tangerman, A., Winkel, E. G., Yaegaki, K., & Rosenberg, M. (2014). Halitosis management by the general dental practitioner--results of an international consensus workshop. Journal of breath research, 8(1), 017101. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/8/1/017101
Seemann, R., Filippi, A., Michaelis, S., Lauterbach, S., John, H. D., & Huismann, J. (2016). Duration of effect of the mouthwash CB12 for the treatment of intra-oral halitosis: a double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. Journal of breath research, 10(3), 036002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/10/3/036002
Seerangaiyan, K., Jüch, F., & Winkel, E. G. (2018). Tongue coating: its characteristics and role in intra-oral halitosis and general health-a review. Journal of breath research, 12(3), 034001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7163/aaa3a1
Seerangaiyan, K., van Winkelhoff, A. J., Harmsen, H., Rossen, J., & Winkel, E. G. (2017). The tongue microbiome in healthy subjects and patients with intra-oral halitosis. Journal of breath research, 11(3), 036010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7163/aa7c24
Sharma, K., Acharya, S., Verma, E., Singhal, D., & Singla, N. (2019). Efficacy of chlorhexidine, hydrogen peroxide and tulsi extract mouthwash in reducing halitosis using spectrophotometric analysis: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of clinical and experimental dentistry, 11(5), e457–e463. https://doi.org/10.4317/jced.55523
Sheng, J., Nguyen, P. T., & Marquis, R. E. (2005). Multi-target antimicrobial actions of zinc against oral anaerobes. Archives of oral biology, 50(8), 747–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2005.01.003
Shetty, N. J., David, K.,Kamala, D. N., & Ramya, S. (2013). Comparative study of a stabilized 0.1 %chlorine dioxide with 0.2% chlorhexidine mouthrinse in inhibiting the formation of volatile sulphur compounds (VSCS). Indian Journal of Applied Research 3(12), 424–427. https://doi.org/10.15373/2249555X/DEC2013/129
Shinada, K., Ueno, M., Konishi, C., Takehara, S., Yokoyama, S., Zaitsu, T., Ohnuki, M., Wright, F. A., & Kawaguchi, Y. (2010). Effects of a mouthwash with chlorine dioxide on oral malodor and salivary bacteria: a randomized placebo-controlled 7-day trial. Trials, 11, 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-11-14
Silva, M. F., Leite, F., Ferreira, L. B., Pola, N. M., Scannapieco, F. A., Demarco, F. F., & Nascimento, G. G. (2018). Estimated prevalence of halitosis: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Clinical oral investigations, 22(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-017-2164-5
Singhal, K., Raj, N., Gupta, K., & Singh, S. (2017). Probable benefits of green tea with genetic implications. Journal of oral and maxillofacial pathology : JOMFP, 21(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-029X.203758
Snel, J., Burgering, M., Smit, B., Noordman, W., Tangerman, A., Winkel, E. G., & Kleerebezem, M. (2011). Volatile sulphur compounds in morning breath of human volunteers. Archives of oral biology, 56(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2010.08.016
Soares, L. G., Guaitolini, R. L., Weyne, S., Falabella, M. E., Tinoco, E. M., & da Silva, D. G. (2013). The effect of a mouthrinse containing chlorine dioxide in the clinical reduction of volatile sulfur compounds. General dentistry, 61(4), 46–49.
Southward, K., & Bosy, A. (2013). Treatment of oral malodor and periodontal disease using an antibiotic rinse. General dentistry, 61(4), 41–45.
Sterer, N., & Rubinstein, Y. (2006). Effect of various natural medicinals on salivary protein putrefaction and malodor production. Quintessence international (Berlin, Germany : 1985), 37(8), 653–658.
Suzuki, N., Fujimoto, A., Yoneda, M., Watanabe, T., Hirofuji, T., & Hanioka, T. (2016). Resting salivary flow independently associated with oral malodor. BMC oral health, 17(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-016-0255-3
Suzuki, N., Nakano, Y., Watanabe, T., Yoneda, M., Hirofuji, T., & Hanioka, T. (2018). Two mechanisms of oral malodor inhibition by zinc ions. Journal of applied oral science : revista FOB, 26, e20170161. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-7757-2017-0161
Suzuki, N., Yoneda, M., Takeshita, T., Hirofuji, T., & Hanioka, T. (2019). Induction and inhibition of oral malodor. Molecular oral microbiology, 34(3), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/omi.12259
Takaesu, Y., Suzuki, N., Naito, M., Watanabe, T., Shimazu, A., Yatabe, N., Yoneda, M., Hirofuji, T., & Hanioka, T. (2020). Novel oral biomarkers predicting oral malodor. Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology and oral radiology, 130(6), 667–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oooo.2020.09.006
Takeshita, T., Suzuki, N., Nakano, Y., Yasui, M., Yoneda, M., Shimazaki, Y., Hirofuji, T., & Yamashita, Y. (2012). Discrimination of the oral microbiota associated with high hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan production. Scientific reports, 2, 215. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00215
Tanaka, M., Anguri, H., Nonaka, A., Kataoka, K., Nagata, H., Kita, J., & Shizukuishi, S. (2004). Clinical assessment of oral malodor by the electronic nose system. Journal of dental research, 83(4), 317–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/154405910408300409
Tangerman, A., & Winkel, E. G. (2007). Intra- and extra-oral halitosis: finding of a new form of extra-oral blood-borne halitosis caused by dimethyl sulphide. Journal of clinical periodontology, 34(9), 748–755. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-051X.2007.01116.x
Tangerman, A., & Winkel, E. G. (2010). Extra-oral halitosis: an overview. Journal of breath research, 4(1), 017003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/4/1/017003
Tangerman, A., & Winkel, E.G. (2013). Volatile Sulfur Compounds as The Cause of Bad Breath: A Review, Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Silicon and the Related Elements, 188(4), 396-402, https://doi.org/10.1080/10426507.2012.736894
Tsuruta, M., Takahashi, T., Tokunaga, M., Iwasaki, M., Kataoka, S., Kakuta, S., Soh, I., Awano, S., Hirata, H., Kagawa, M., & Ansai, T. (2017). Relationships between pathologic subjective halitosis, olfactory reference syndrome, and social anxiety in young Japanese women. BMC psychology, 5(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-017-0176-1
van den Broek, A. M., Feenstra, L., & de Baat, C. (2007). A review of the current literature on aetiology and measurement methods of halitosis. Journal of dentistry, 35(8), 627–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdent.2007.04.009
Van der Sleen, M. I., Slot, D. E., Van Trijffel, E., Winkel, E. G., & Van der Weijden, G. A. (2010). Effectiveness of mechanical tongue cleaning on breath odour and tongue coating: a systematic review. International journal of dental hygiene, 8(4), 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-5037.2010.00479.x
Van Tornout, M., Dadamio, J., Coucke, W., & Quirynen, M. (2013). Tongue coating: related factors. Journal of clinical periodontology, 40(2), 180–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpe.12031
Vandekerckhove, B. N., Bollen, C. M., Dekeyser, C., Darius, P., & Quirynen, M. (1996). Full- versus partial-mouth disinfection in the treatment of periodontal infections. Long-term clinical observations of a pilot study. Journal of periodontology, 67(12), 1251–1259. https://doi.org/10.1902/jop.1996.67.12.1251
Veeresha, K. L., Bansal, M., & Bansal, V. (2011). Halitosis: A frequently ignored social condition. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry, 1(1), 9–13. https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-0762.86374
Wang, J., & He, L. (2017). [Effect of mechanical self-cleaning of tongue coating on malodor in halitosis patients originating from tongue coating]. Beijing da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban = Journal of Peking University. Health sciences, 49(2), 344–348.
Wigger-Alberti, W., Gysen, K., Axmann, E. M., & Wilhelm, K. P. (2010). Efficacy of a new mouthrinse formulation on the reduction of oral malodour in vivo. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 3 week clinical study. Journal of breath research, 4(1), 017102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/4/1/017102
Wilhelm, D., Gysen, K., Himmelmann, A., Krause, C., & Wilhelm, K. P. (2010). Short-term effect of a new mouthrinse formulation on oral malodour after single use in vivo: a comparative, randomized, single-blind, parallel-group clinical study. Journal of breath research, 4(3), 036002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/4/3/036002
Winkel, E. G., Roldán, S., Van Winkelhoff, A. J., Herrera, D., & Sanz, M. (2003). Clinical effects of a new mouthrinse containing chlorhexidine, cetylpyridinium chloride and zinc-lactate on oral halitosis. A dual-center, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Journal of clinical periodontology, 30(4), 300–306. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-051x.2003.00342.x
Xu, X., Zhou, X. D., & Wu, C. D. (2010). Tea catechin EGCg suppresses the mgl gene associated with halitosis. Journal of dental research, 89(11), 1304–1308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034510378682
Yadav, S. R., Kini, V. V., & Padhye, A. (2015). Inhibition of Tongue Coat and Dental Plaque Formation by Stabilized Chlorine Dioxide Vs Chlorhexidine Mouthrinse: A Randomized, Triple Blinded Study. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research : JCDR, 9(9), ZC69–ZC74. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2015/14587.6510
Yaegaki, K., & Sanada, K. (1992). Volatile sulfur compounds in mouth air from clinically healthy subjects and patients with periodontal disease. Journal of periodontal research, 27(4 Pt 1), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0765.1992.tb01673.x
Yaegaki, K., Coil, J. M., Kamemizu, T., & Miyazaki, H. (2002). Tongue brushing and mouth rinsing as basic treatment measures for halitosis. International dental journal, 52 Suppl 3, 192–196. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1875-595x.2002.tb00923.x
Ye, J., Cai, X., & Cao, P. (2014). Problems and prospects of current studies on the microecology of tongue coating. Chinese medicine, 9(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1749-8546-9-9
Yokoyama, S., Ohnuki, M., Shinada, K., Ueno, M., Wright, F. A., & Kawaguchi, Y. (2010). Oral malodor and related factors in Japanese senior high school students. The Journal of school health, 80(7), 346–352. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00512.x
Yoneda, M., Masuo, Y., Suzuki, N., Iwamoto, T., & Hirofuji, T. (2010). Relationship between the β-galactosidase activity in saliva and parameters associated with oral malodor. Journal of breath research, 4(1), 017108. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/4/1/017108
Yoo, J. I., Shin, I. S., Jeon, J. G., Yang, Y. M., Kim, J. G., & Lee, D. W. (2019). The Effect of Probiotics on Halitosis: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Probiotics and antimicrobial proteins, 11(1), 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12602-017-9351-1
Young, A., Jonski, G., & Rölla, G. (2003). Inhibition of orally produced volatile sulfur compounds by zinc, chlorhexidine or cetylpyridinium chloride--effect of concentration. European journal of oral sciences, 111(5), 400–404. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0722.2003.00063.x
Young, A., Jonski, G., Rölla, G., & Wåler, S. M. (2001). Effects of metal salts on the oral production of volatile sulfur-containing compounds (VSC). Journal of clinical periodontology, 28(8), 776–781. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-051x.2001.280809.x
Zeng, Q. C., Wu, A. Z., & Pika, J. (2010). The effect of green tea extract on the removal of sulfur-containing oral malodor volatiles in vitro and its potential application in chewing gum. Journal of breath research, 4(3), 036005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/4/3/036005
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Justyna Grudziąż-Sękowska, Ewa Iwanicka-Grzegorek
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The periodical offers access to content in the Open Access system under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
Stats
Number of views and downloads: 647
Number of citations: 0