“My long stay in Russia taught me overmuch caution...”. Writers towards censorship in the 1830s

Abstract

Issues pertaining to the nineteenth century censorship are not raised very often; they usually concern the presentation of the institution and social results of its activity. The knowledge of particular writers’ attitude towards measures used by censorship is essential to editorial works and to the understanding of various historical and literary phenomena. The writer who very quickly reacted to attempts of limiting publishing freedom was Zygmunt Krasiński; his letters (mainly to Konstanty Gaszyński living in France) include many important and dramatic statements pertaining to Russian intentions. The poet’s letters are also the evidence of fear related to censorial repression. The decision to publish Nie-Boska komedia and Irydion anonymously in Paris was the consequence of Krasiński’s concerns. The author hid his authorship even from close friends and embarked on various undertakings that could mystify his literary situation. The positive reception of his dramatic works in the emigratory community gradually nullified the poet’s fears concerning his literary future; therefore, in the following years, the number of his statements pertaining to censorship decreased. In the letters the author included information about his life in the reality determined by the organization controlling thoughts and words. Sometimes he also wrote about censorship in a humorous way.

Juliusz Słowacki’s attitude towards censorship was totally different. The poet, aware of political restrictions, hoped for constructing his literary future in emigratory structures. The success of his three poetic volumes intensified his optimism previously replaced by pessimistic information about political repression in the country. The situation became worse because of inability to maintain correspondence with the closest family members and impossibility to involve them into his literary life. Publishing difficulties caused the poet’s creative depression. At the end of 1830s, in the reality marked with censorial control, the author of Kordian could not see the place for his creative output. Adam Mickiewicz’s attitude towards censorship was similar to the stance represented by Słowacki. Mickiewicz’s experience from 1820s was the source of optimistic approach to his literary life. Furthermore, the poet broke almost all contacts with the country, decided to live abroad and became a privileged author of Polish publishers in Paris – during three years he published works which made him the national bard. The poet quickly realized (as well as Słowacki) that it is impossible to reach readers in his country and the failure of emigratory publishing movement deprived him of the hope for publishing his works and earning money.

Narcyza Żmichowska’s comments prove to be an interesting context for the Polish writers’ attitudes towards censorship. She experienced censorial limitations; therefore, she wrote (in her letters to her brother, Erazm, and her friend’s brother, Feliks Michałowski) about social consequences of the restrictions and the ways in which people opposed, e.g. by memorizing the most significant excerpts from the works which were later written down. Moreover, the writer also presented ways in which the forbidden books were transported. Żmichowska’s travel experience gained during the journey to France was used by her in the next decades of the author’s literary and social activity. She repeatedly exceeded the limitations imposed on her by the annexationist and fearlessly wrote about them.

In the writers’ comments concerning censorship the ambiguity of attitudes is visible: on the one hand – fear, on the other hand – the need to present the mechanism of censors’ activity. The writers’ basic task was to find appropriate forms of literary message which would become impossible to control. Together with social experiences and inventing the ways of opposing censorial activity the number of statements concerning censorship decreased. The letters written by the above-mentioned writers are the evidence.