Loneliness or Solitude: Which Will We Experience?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/RF.2023.033Słowa kluczowe
loneliness, solitude, alienation, isolation, consequences of loneliness, COVID-19Abstrakt
Loneliness, social isolation, aloneness, and solitude are frequently used interchangeably but are actually different. Loneliness is particularly salient now, due to the international restrictions on social activities imposed as a result of COVID-19, which brought loneliness into open discussion worldwide. The article highlights loneliness as a multidimensional construct and reviews its impact on cognitive, behavioral and affective functioning. In doing so, particular attention is given to loneliness as it manifests through the various life stages, as well as how personal predisposition and contextual factors may exacerbate it. in this article we also review solitude, and a clear distinction between loneliness and solitude is established. Finally, we conclude by addressing the global claims of loneliness during the pandemic and its implications. We offer a point of view which may assist in coping with it.
Bibliografia
Åkerlind Ingemar, Hörnquist Jan Olof. 1992 “Loneliness and Alcohol Abuse: A Review of Evidences of an Interplay”. Social Science & Medicine, 34(4): 405–414.
André Rae. 1991. Positive Solitude: A Practical Program for Mastering Loneliness and Achieving Self-Fulfillment. New York: HarperColins.
Bangee Munirah, Harris Rebecca A., Bridges Nicola, Rotenberg Ken J., Qualter Pamela. 2014. “Loneliness and Attention to Social Threat in Young Adults: Findings from an Eye Tracker Study”. Personality and Individual Differences 63: 16–23.
Bell Robert A., Daly John A. 1985. “Some Communicative Correlates of Loneliness”. Communication Monographs 52: 218–235.
Ben-Zur Hasida. 2013. “Loneliness, Optimism, and Well-being among Married, Divorced, and Widowed Individuals”. In: Loneliness Updated, ed. Ami Rokach, 23–36. New York: Routledge.
Bonanno George A., Galea Sandro, Bucciarelli Angela, Vlahov David. 2007. “What Predicts Psychological Resilience after Disaster? The Role of Demographics, Resources, and Life Stress”. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 75(5): 671–682.
Booth, R. 2000. “Loneliness as a Component of Psychiatric Disorders”. Medscape General Medicine 2(2): 1–7.
Bower Marlee, Conroy Elizabeth, Perz Janette. 2017. “Australian Homeless Persons’ Experiences of Social Connectedness, Isolation and Loneliness”. Health and Social Care in the Community 26(2): e241–e248.
Brehm Sharon S. 1992. Intimate Relationships. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brewer Marilynn B. 2005. “The Psychological Impact of Social Isolation: Discussion and Commentary”. In: The Social Outcast: Ostracism, Social Exclusion, Rejection, and Bullying, eds. Kippling D. Williams, Joseph P. Forgas, William von Hippel, 333–345. New York: Psychology Press.
Bronte Charlotte. 1847. Jayne Eyre. An Autobiography. London: Smith, Elder.
Brooks Samantha K., Webster Rebecca K., Smith Louise E., Woodland Lisa, Wessely Simon, Greenberg Neil. 2020. “The Psychological Impact of Quarantine and How to Reduce It: Rapid Review of the Evidence. The Lancet 395, 912–920.
Burger Jerry M. 1998. “Solitude”. In: Encyclopedia of Mental Health, ed. Howard S. Friedman, Vol. 3, 563–569. San Diego: Academic Press.
Camus Albert. 1970. The Plague, transl. Stuart Gilbert (London: Hamish Hamilton Ltd).
Cacioppo John T., Patrick William. 2008. Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection. New York: W.W. Norton.
Cacioppo John T., Cacioppo Stephanie. 2014. “Social Relationships and Health: The Toxic Effects of Perceived Social Isolation”. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 8(2): 58–72.
Cacioppo John T., Hawkley Louise C. 2009. “Perceived Social Isolation and Cognition”. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13(10): 447–454.
Cacioppo John T., Cacioppo Stephanie, Capitanio John P., Cole Steven W. 2015. “The Neuroendocrinology of Social Isolation”. Annual Review of Psychology 66: 733–767.
Cacioppo John T., Cacioppo Stephanie, Cole Steven W., Capitanio John P., Goossens Luc, Boomsma Dorret I. 2015. “Loneliness Across Phylogeny and a Call for Animal Models”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 10(2): 202–212.
Cacioppo John T., Ernst John M., Burleson Mary H., McClintock Martha K., Malarkey William B., Hawkley Louise C., Kowalewski Ray B., Paulsen Alisa, Hobson J. Allan, Hugdahl Kenneth, Spiegel David, Berntson Gary G. 2000. “Lonely Traits and Concomitant Physiological Processes: The MacArthur Social Neuroscience Studies”. International Journal of Psychophysiology 35(2–3): 143–154.
Cacioppo, John T., Fowler James H., Christakis Nicholas A. 2009. “Alone in the Crowd: The Structure and Spread of Loneliness in a Large Social Network”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97(6): 977–991.
Cacioppo John T., Hawkley Louise C., Thisted Ronald A. 2010. “Perceived Social Isolation Makes Me Sad: 5-year Cross-Lagged Analyses of Loneliness and Depressive Symptomatology in the Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study”. Psychology and Aging 25(2): 453–463.
Cacioppo John T., Hughes Mary Elizabeth, Waite Linda J., Hawkley Louise C., Thisted Ronald A. 2006. “Loneliness as a Specific Risk Factor for Depressive Symptoms: Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses”. Psychology and Aging 21(1): 140–151.
Cacioppo Stephanie, Cacioppo John T. 2013. “Do you Feel Lonely? You are Not Alone: Lessons from Social Neuroscience”. Frontiers in Neuroscience for Young Minds 1(9): article 9: 1–5.
Cacioppo Stephanie, Grippo Angela J., London Sarah, Goossens Luc, Cacioppo John T. 2015. “Loneliness: Clinical Import and Interventions”. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238–249.
Carter Betty. 1995. “Focusing your Wide-Angle Lens”. The Family Therapy Networker 19(6): 31–35.
Chang Edward C., Lian Xiang, Yu Tina, Qu Junjie, Zhang Bohan, Jia Wenwen, Qin Hu, Junze Li, Jiaqing Wu, Hirsch Jameson K. 2015. “Loneliness under Assault: Understanding the Impact of Sexual Assault on the Relation between Loneliness and Suicidal Risk in College Students”. Personality and Individual Differences 72: 155–159.
Chang Edward C., Muyan Mine, Hirsch Jameson K. 2015. “Loneliness, Positive Life Events, and Psychological Maladjustment: When Good Things Happen, Even Lonely People Feel Better!”. Personality and Individual Differences 86: 150–155.
Clark D. Matthew T., Loxton Natalie J., Tobin Stephanie J. 2015. “Multiple Mediators of Reward and Punishment Sensitivity on Loneliness”. Personality and Individual Differences 72: 101–106.
Cole Steve W. 2008. “Social Regulation of Leukocyte Homeostasis: The Role of Glucocorticoid Sensitivity”. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 22(7): 1049–1055.
Cole Steven W., Hawkley Louise C., Arevalo Jesusa M. G., Cacioppo John T. 2011. “Transcript Origin Analysis Identifies Antigen-Presenting Cells as Primary Targets of Socially Regulated Gene Expression in Leukocytes”. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108(7): 3080–3085.
Cutrona Carolyn E. 1982. “Transition to College: Loneliness and the Process of Social Adjustment”. In: Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research, and Therapy, eds. Letitia Anne Peplau, Daniel Perlman, 291–301. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Danneel Sofie, Maes Marlies, Vanhalst Janne, Bijttebier Patricia, Goossens Luc. 2018. “Developmental Change in Loneliness and Attitudes toward Aloneness in Adolescence”. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 47(1): 148–161.
Dinerstein Rebecca. “Top 10 Books about Being Alone”. The Guardian, 10.06.2015. Access 10.07.2015. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jun/10/top-10-books-about-being-alone.
DiTomasso Enrico, Fizzel Samantha R., Robinson Bryn A. 2015. “Chronic Loneliness within an Attachment Framework: Process and Interventions”. In: Addressing Loneliness: Coping, Prevention and Clinical Interventions, eds. Ami Sha’ked, Ami Rokach, 241–253. New York: Routledge.
Dixon Denise, Cruess Stacy, Kilbourn Kristin, Klimas Nancy, Fletcher Mary Ann, Ironson Gail, Baum Andrew, Schneiderman Neil, Antoni Michael H. 2001. “Social Support Mediates Loneliness and Human Herpesvirus Type 6 (HHV-6) Antibody Titers”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 31(6): 1111–1132.
Doane Leah D., Adam Emma K. 2010. “Loneliness and Cortisol: Momentary, Day-to-Day, and Trait Associations”. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35(3): 430–441.
Dronjak Sladjana, Jezova Daniela, Kvetnansky Richard, “Different Effects of Novel Stressors on Sympathoadrenal System Activation in Rats Exposed to Long-Term Immobilization”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1018(1) (2004): 113–123.
Eisenberger Naomi I., Cole Steve W. 2012. “Social Neuroscience and Health: Neurophysiological Mechanisms Linking Social Ties with Physical Health”. Nature Neuroscience 15(5): 669–674.
Ellis Wendy E., Dumas Tara M. 2020. “Physically Isolated but Socially Connected: Psychological Adjustment and Stress Among Adolescents During the Initial COVID-19 Crisis”. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 52(3): 177–187.
Ernst John M., Cacioppo John T. 1999. “Lonely Hearts: Psychological Perspectives on Loneliness”. Applied & Preventive Psychology 8(1): 1–22.
Finn Seth, Gorr Mry Beth. 1988. “Social Isolation and Social Support as Correlates of Television Viewing Motivations”. Communication Research 15(2): 135–158.
France Peter. 1996. Hermits: The Insight of Solitude. New York: St. Martin’s.
Freyhofer Sebastian, Ziegler Niklas, Jong Elisabeth M. de, Schippers Michaéla C. 2021. “Depression and Anxiety in Times of COVID-19: How Coping Strategies and Loneliness Relate to Mental Health Outcomes and Academic Performance”. Frontiers in Psychology 12: 682684.
Friedman R. L. 2007. Widening the Therapeutic Lens: Sense of Belonging as an Integral Dimension of the Human Experience (doctoral dissertation submitted to the Wright Institute Graduate School). Retrieved from PsycINFO. (Order No. AAI3268822).
Fromm Erich. 1941. Escape from freedom. New York: Avon.
Fromm-Reichmann Frieda. 1959. “Loneliness”. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes 22: 1–15.
Fuchs Carilyn Z., Rehm Lynn P. 1977. “A Self-Control Behavior Therapy Program for Depression”. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 45(2): 206–215.
Gardner Wendi L., Pickett Cynthia L., Jefferis Valerie, Knowles Megan. 2005. “On the Outside Looking In Loneliness and Social Monitoring. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31(11): 1549–1560.
Gierveld Jenny de Jong. 1998. “A Review of Loneliness: Concept and Definitions, Determinants and Consequences”. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology 8(1): 73–80.
Greenwood Dara N., Long Christopher R. 2009. “Psychological Predictors of Media Involvement: Solitude Experiences and the Need to Belong”. Communication Research 36(5): 637–654.
Griffin Jo. 2010. The Lonely Society? London: Mental Health Foundation.
Grippo Angela J., Ihm Elliott, Wardwell Joshua, McNeal Neal, Scotti Melissa-Ann L., Deirdre A. Moenk, Chandler Danielle L., LaRocca Meagan A., Preihs Kristin. 2014. “The Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Depressive and Anxiety-Relevant Behaviors in Socially Isolated Prairie Voles”. Psychosomatic Medicine 76(4): 277–284.
Hartog Joseph, Audy J. Ralph, Cohen Yehudi A. eds. 1980. The Anatomy of Loneliness. New York: International Universities Press.
Hawkley Louise C., Cacioppo John T. 2010. “Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms”. Annals of Behavioural Medicine 40(2): 218–227.
Hawkley Louise C., Browne Michael W., Cacioppo John T. 2005. “How Can I Connect with Thee? Let Me Count the Ways”. Psychological Science 16(10): 798–803.
Hawkley Louise C., Hughes Mary Elizabeth, Waite Linda J., Masi Christopher M., Thisted Ronald A., Cacioppo John T. 2008. “From Social Structural Factors to Perceptions of Relationship Quality and Loneliness: The Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study”. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 63(6): S375–S384.
Hawkley Louise C., Masi Christopher M., Berry Jarett D., Cacioppo John T. 2006. “Loneliness is a Unique Predictor of Age-Related Differences in Systolic Blood Pressure”. Psychology and Aging 21(1): 152–164.
Heinrich Liesl M., Gullone Eleonora. 2006. “The Clinical Significance of Loneliness: A Literature Review”. Clinical Psychology Review 26(6): 695–718.
Higgins E. Tory. 1997. “Beyond Pleasure and Pain”. American Psychologist 52(12): 1280–1300.
Hirsch Jameson K., Chang Edward C., Jeglic Elizabeth L. 2012. “Social Problem Solving and Suicidal Behavior: Ethnic Differences in the Moderating Effects of Loneliness and Life Stress”. Archives of Suicide Research 16(4): 303–315.
Hirsch Jameson K., Duberstein Paul R., Conner Kenneth R., Heisel Marnin J., Beckman Anthony, Franus Nathan, Conwell Yeates. 2006. “Future Orientation and Suicide Ideation and Attempts in Depressed Adults Ages 50 and Over”. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14(9): 752–757.
Hojat Mohammadreza. 1983. “Comparison of Transitory and Chronic Loners on Selected Personality Variables”. British Journal of Psychology 74(2): 199–202.
Hojat Mohammadreza. 1987. “A Psychodynamic View of Loneliness and Mother-Child Relationships: A Review of Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings”. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality 2(2): 89–104.
Holt-Lunstad Julianne, Smith Timothy B., Baker Mark, Harris Tyler, Stephenson David. 2015. “Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 10(2): 227–237.
Horowitz Leonard M., French Rita de S., Anderson Craig A. 1982. “The Prototype of a Lonely Person”. In: Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy, eds. Letitia Anne Peplau, Daniel Perlman, 183–205. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Horowitz Jason L., Garber Judy, Ciesla Jeffrey A., Young Jami F., Mufson Laura. 2007. “Prevention of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents: a Randomized Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral and Interpersonal Prevention Programs”. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 75(5): 693.
Hymel Shelley, Tarulli Donato, Hayden Thompson Laura, Terrell-Deutsch Beverley. 1999. “Loneliness Through the Eyes of Children”. In: Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence, eds. Ken J. Rotenberg, Shelley Hymel, 80–106. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Inderbitzen-Pisaruk Heidi, Clark Maggie L., Solano Cecilia H. 1992. “Correlates of Loneliness in Midadolescence”. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 21(2): 151–167.
Jackson Todd, Soderlind Adam, Weiss Karen E. 2000. “Personality Traits and Quality of Relationships as Predictors of Future Loneliness Among American College Students”. Social Behavior and Personality 28(5): 463–470.
Johnson H. Durell, Lavoie Joseph C., Spenceri Mary C., Mahoney-Wernli Molly A. 2001. “Peer Conflict Avoidance: Associations with Loneliness, Social Anxiety, and Social Avoidance”. Psychological Reports 88(1): 227–235.
Jones Warren H. 1982. “Loneliness and Social Behaviour”. In: Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy, eds. Letitia Anne Peplau, Daniel Perlman, 238–252. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Jones Warren H., Cavert Cheryl W., Snider, Robin L., Bruce Terry. 1985. “Relational Stress: An Analysis of Situations and Events Associated with Loneliness”. In: Understanding Personal Relationships. An interdisciplinary approach, eds. Steve Duck, Daniel Perlman, 221–242. London: Sage Publications, Inc.
Kearns Ade, Whitley Elise, Tannahill Carol, Ellaway Anne. 2015. “Loneliness, Social Relations and Health and Well-Being in Deprived Communities”. Psychology, Health and Medicine 20(3): 332–344.
Kiecolt-Glaser Janice K., Garner Warren, Speicher Carl, Penn Gerald M., Holliday Jane, Glaser Ronald. 1984. “Psychosocial Modifiers of Immunocompetence in Medical Students”. Psychosomatic Medicine 46(1): 7–14.
Killgore William D. S., Cloonan Sara A., Taylor Emily C., Dailey Natalie S. 2020. “Loneliness: a Signature Mental Health Concern in the Era of COVID-19”. Psychiatry Research 290: 19–21.
Koenig Linda J., Abrams Robin F. 1999. “Adolescent Loneliness and Adjustment: A Focus on Gender Differences”. In: Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence, eds. Ken J. Rotenberg, Shelley Hymel, 296–322. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kraut Robert, Patterson Michael, Lundmark Vicki, Kiesler Sara, Mukophadhyay Tridas, Scherlis William. 1998. “Internet Paradox: A Social Technology that Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-being?”. American Psychologist 53(9): 1017–1031.
Lai Francisco Tsz Tsun, Kwan Joyce Lok Yin. 2017. “The Presence of Heavy Internet Using Peers is Protective of the Risk of Problematic Internet Use (PIU) in Adolescents When the Amount of Use Increases”. Children and Youth Services Review 73: 74–78.
Lalayants Marina, Prince Jonathan D. 2015. “Loneliness and Depression or Depression-Related Factors Among Child Welfare-Involved Adolescent Females”. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal 32(2): 167–176.
Lamis Dorian A., Ballard Elizabeth D., Patel Amee B. 2014. “Loneliness and Suicidal Ideation in Drug – Using College Students”. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 44(6): 629–640.
Larson Reed W. 1990. “The Solitary Side of Life: An Examination of the Time People Spend Alone from Childhood to Old Age”. Developmental Review 10(2): 155–183.
Lasgaard Mathias, Friis Karina, Shevlin Mark. 2016. “‘Where Are All the Lonely People?’ A Population-Based Study of High-Risk Groups Across the Life Span”. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 51(10): 1373–1384.
Leigh-Hunt Nicholas, Bagguley Dominic, Bash Kristin, Turner Victoria, Turnbull Sophie Louise, Valtorta Nicole K., Caan Woody. 2017. “An Overview of Systematic Reviews on the Public Health Consequences of Social Isolation and Loneliness”. Public Health 152: 157–171.
Lerner Ben. 2011. Leaving the Atocha Station. New York: Coffee House Press.
Lewis Thomas, Amini Fari, Lannon Richard. 2000. A General Theory of Love. New York: Random House.
loannou Christos C., Guttal Vishwesha, Couzin Iain D. 2012. “Predatory Fish Select for Coordinated Collective Motion in Virtual Prey”. Science 337: 1212–1215.
Long Christopher R., Averill James R. 2003. “Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone”. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 33(1): 21–44.
Long Christopher R. 2000. A Comparison of Positive and Negative Episodes of Solitude. Unpublished manuscript, Duke University.
Lu Xi, Yeo Kee Jiar. 2015. “Pathological Internet Use Among Malaysia University Students: Risk Factors and the Role of Cognitive Distortion”. Computers in Human Behavior 45: 235–242.
Lucas Gale M., Knowles Megan L., Gardner Wendi L., Molden Daniel C., Jefferis Valerie E. 2010. “Increasing Social Engagement Among Lonely Individuals: The Role of Acceptance Cues and Promotion Motivations”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36(10): 1346–1359.
Luo Ye, Hawkley Louise C., Waite Linda J., Cacioppo John T. 2012. “Loneliness, Health, and Mortality in Old Age: A National Longitudinal Study”. Social Science & Medicine 74(6): 907–914.
Lynch James J., Convey William H. 1979. “Loneliness, Disease, and Death: Alternative Approaches”. Psychosomatics 20: 702–708.
Lyons David M., Ha Chae M. G., Levine Seymour, “Social Effects and Circadian Rhythms in Squirrel Monkey Pituitary-Adrenal Activity”, Hormones and Behavior 29(2) (1995): 177–190.
Mahler Richard. 2003. Stillness: Daily Gifts of Solitude. York Beach: Red Wheel/Weiser, LLC.
Mann Farhana, Bone Jessica K., Lloyd-Evans Brynmor, Frerichs Johanna, Pinfold Vanessa, Ma Ruimin, Wang Jingyi, Johnson Sonia. 2017. “A Life Less Lonely: The State of the Art in Interventions to Reduce Loneliness in People with Mental Health Problems”. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 52(6): 627–638.
Margalit Malka. 2010. Lonely Children and Adolescents: Self-Perceptions, Social Exclusions, and Hope. New York: Springer.
Marlraux André. 1933. Man’s Fate. Paris: Smith and Haas
Maslow Abraham H. 1970. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row.
McPherson Miller, Smith-Lovin Lynn, Brashears Matthew E. 2006. “Social Isolation in America: Changes in Core Discussion Networks over two Decades”. American Sociological Review 71(3): 353–375.
McWhirter Benedict T., Besett-Alesch Tricia, Horibata Jarrett, Gat Irit. 2002. “Loneliness in High Risk Adolescents: The Role of Coping, Self-Esteem, and Empathy”. Journal of Youth Studies 5(1): 69–84.
Mellor David, Stokes Mark, Firth Lucy, Hayashi Yoko, Cummins Robert. 2008. “Need for Belonging, Relationship Satisfaction, Loneliness, and Life Satisfaction”. Personality and Individual Differences 45(3): 213–218.
Merton Thomas. 2000. Thomas Merton: Essential Writings. New York: Orbis Books.
Mijuskovic Ben Lazare. 1992. “Organic Communities, Atomistic Societies, and Loneliness”. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 19(2): 147–164.
Mijuskovic Ben Lazare. 2012. Loneliness in Philosophy, Psychology, and Literature. iUniverse, Bloomington.
Mijuskovic Ben Lazare. 1979. Loneliness in Philosophy, Psychology and Literature. The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.
Moore DeWayne, Schultz Norman R. Jr. 1983. “Loneliness at Adolescence: Correlates, Attributions, and Coping”. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 12(2): 95–100.
Morgan Vera A., Waterreus Anna, Jablensky Assen, Mackinnon Andrew, McGrath John J., Carr Vaughan, Bush Robert, Castle David, Cohen Martin, Harvey Carol, Galletly Cherrie, Stain Helen J., Neil Amanda L., McGorry Patrick, Hocking Barbara, Shah Sonal, Saw Suzy. 2012. “People Living with Psychotic Illness in 2010: The Second Australian National Survey of Psychosis”. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 46(8): 735–752.
Morrison Philip S., Smith Rebekah. 2018. “Loneliness: An Overview”. In: Narratives of Loneliness: Multidisciplinary Perspectives from the 21st Century, eds. Olivia Sagan, Eric D. Miller, 11–25. New York: Routledge.
Moustakas Clark E. 1961. Loneliness. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Moustakas, Clark E. 1972. Loneliness and Love. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Moustakas Clark E. 1989. Loneliness. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Murray Sandra L., Holmes John G., Collins Nancy L. 2006. “Optimizing Assurance: The Risk Regulation System in Relationships”. Psychological Bulletin 132(5): 641–666.
Muyan Mine, Chang Edward C. 2015. ‘Perfectionism as a Predictor of Suicidal Risk in Turkish College Students: Does Loneliness Contribute to Further Risk?” Cognitive Therapy and Research 39(6): 776–784.
Nemati Zeinab, Matlabi Hossein. 2017. “Assessing Behavioral Patterns of Internet Addiction and Drug Abuse Among High School Students”. Psychology Research and Behavior Management 10: 39–45.
Neto Félix, Barros José. 2000. “Psychosocial Concomitants of Loneliness Among Students of Cape Verde and Portugal”. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 134(5): 503–514.
Nonogaki Katsunori, Nozue Kana, Oka Yoshitomo, “Social Isolation Affects the Development of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Mice”, Endocrinology 148(10): 4658–4666.
Olds Jacqueline, Schwartz Richard S. 2009. The Lonely American: Drifting Apart in the Twenty first Century. Boston: Beacon Press.
Ornish Dean. 1998. Love and Survival: The Scientific Basis for the Healing Power of Intimacy. New York: HarperCollins.
Ornish Dean. 2007. The Spectrum. New York: Ballantine Books.
Paloutzian Raymond F., Ellison Craig W. 1982. “Loneliness, Spiritual Well-Being, and the Quality of Life”. In: Loneliness: Current theory, research, and therapy, eds. Letitia Anne Peplau, Daniel Perlman, 224–236. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Pappano Laura. 2001. The Connection Gap: Why Americans Feel So Alone. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Parse Rosemarie Rizzo. 2007. “The Humanbecoming School of Thought in 2050”. Nursing Science Quarterly 20(4): 308–311.
Peplau Letitia Anne, Perlman Daniel eds. 1982. Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Peplau Letitia Anne, Russell Dan, Heim Margaret. 1979. “The Experience of Loneliness”. In: New Approaches to Social Problems: Applications of Attribution Theory, eds. Irene Hanson Frieze, Daniel Bar-Tal, John Carroll S., 53–78. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Perlman Daniel, Peplau Letitia Anne. 1981. “Toward a Social Psychology of Loneliness”. In: Personal Relationships in Disorder, eds. Steve Duck, Robin Gilmour, 31–56. London, UK: Academic Press.
Perlman Daniel, Peplau Letitia Anne. 1998. “Loneliness”. In: Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Vol. 2, ed. Howard S. Friedman, 571–581. San Diego: Academic Press.
Perlman Daniel, Joshi Purushottam. 1987. “The Revelation of Loneliness”. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality 2(2): 63–76.
Petersen Johanna, Thielke Stephen, Austin Daniel, Kaye Jeffrey. 2016. “Phone Behaviour and Its Relationship to Loneliness in Older Adults”. Aging and Mental Health 20(10): 1084–1091.
Pilkonis Paul A. 1977. “The Behavioral Consequences of Shyness”. Journal of Personality 45(4): 596–611.
Pinquart Martin, Sörensen Silvia. 2003. “Risk Factors for Loneliness in Adulthood and Old Age – A Meta-Analysis”. In: Advances in Psychology Research, Vol. 19, ed. Serge P. Shohov, 111–143. Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers.
Pressman Sarah D., Cohen Sheldon, Miller Gregory E., Barkin Anita, Rabin Bruce S., Treanor John J. 2005. “Loneliness, Social Network Size, and Immune Response to Influenza Vaccination in College Freshmen”. Health Psychology 24(3): 297–306.
Rank Otto. 1929. The Trauma of Birth. Oxford: Harcourt, Brace, Oxford.
Rokach Ami, Sha’ked Ami. 2013. Together and Lonely: Loneliness in Intimate Relationships – Causes and Coping. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Rokach Ami. 1988. “The Experience of Loneliness: A Tri-level Model”. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 122(6): 531–544.
Rokach Ami. 1990. “Surviving and Coping with Loneliness”. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 124(1): 39–54.
Rokach Ami. 1997. “Loneliness in Jail: Coping Strategies”. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 41(3): 260–271.
Rokach Ami. 2000. “Loneliness and the Life Cycle”. Psychological Reports 86(2) : 629–642.
Rokach Ami. 2004. “Loneliness Then and Now: Reflections on Social and Emotional Alienation in Everyday Life”. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues 23(1): 24–40.
Rokach Ami. 2015. “Loneliness, Alienation, Solitude and Our Lives”. In: Addressing Loneliness: Coping, Prevention and Clinical Interventions, eds. Ami Sha’ked, Ami Rokach. 3–19. New York: Routledge.
Rokach, Ami ed. 2017. Emotions and Their Influence on Our Personal, Interpersonal and Social Experiences. New York–London: Routledge.
Rokach, Ami. 2019. The Psychological Journey to and from Loneliness: Development, Causes, and Effects of Social and Emotional Isolation. Cambridge: Academic Press.
Rokach Ami, Brock Heather. 1997. “Loneliness: A Multidimensional Experience”. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior 34(1): 1–9.
Rolheiser Ronald. 1979. The Loneliness Factor. Its Religious and Spiritual Meaning. Denville: Dimension Books.
Rook Karen S., Charles Susan T. 2017. “Close Social Ties and Health in Later Life: Strengths and Vulnerabilities”. American Psychologist 72(6): 567–577.
Rook Karen S., Peplau Letitia Anne. 1982. “Perspectives on Helping the Lonely”. In: Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy, eds. Letitia A. Peplau, Daniel Perlman. 351–378. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Rubenstein Carin M., Shaver Philip. 1982. “The Experience of Loneliness”. In: Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy, eds. Letitia Anne Peplau, Daniel Perlman. 206–223. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Rudatsikira Emmanuel, Muula Adamson S., Siziya Seter, Twa-Twa Jeremiash. 2007. “Suicidal Ideation and Associated Factors among School-going Adolescents in Rural Uganda”. BMC Psychiatry, 7: 67: (page numbers not for citation purposes).
Sadler William A., Johnson Thomas B. 1980. “From Loneliness to Anomia”. In: The Anatomy of Loneliness, eds. Joseph Hartog, Audy J. Ralph, Yehudi A. Cohen, 34–64. New York: International Universities Press.
Sadler William A. 1978. “Dimensions in the Problem of Loneliness: A Phenomenological Approach in Social Psychology”. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 9(1–2): 157–187.
Sagan Olivia, Miller Eric D. eds. 2018. Narratives of Loneliness: Multidisciplinary Perspectives from the 21st Century. New York: Routledge.
Savikko Niina, Routasalo Pirkko E., Tilvis Reijo S., Strandberg Timo E., Pitkälä Kaisu H. 2005. “Predictors and Subjective Causes of Loneliness in an Aged Population”. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 41(3): 223–233.
Schermer Julie Aitken, Martin Rod A., Vernon Philip A., Martin Nicholas G., Conde Lucia Colodro, Statham Dixie, Lynskey Michael T. 2017. “Lonely People Tend to Make Fun of Themselves: A Behavior Genetic Analysis of Humor Styles and Loneliness”. Personality and Individual Differences 117: 71–73.
Schimmenti Adriano, Passanisi Alessia, Caretti Vincenzo, La Marca Luana, Granieri Antonella, Iacolino Calogero, Gervasi Alessia M., Maganuco Noemi R., Billieux Joël. 2017. “Traumatic Experiences, Alexithymia, and Internet Addiction Symptoms Among Late Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Analysis”. Addictive Behaviors 64: 314–320.
Schultz Terri. 1976. Bittersweet: Surviving and Growing from Loneliness. New York: T. Crowell.
Sha’ked Ami, Rokach Ami eds. 2015. Addressing Loneliness: Coping, Prevention and Clinical Interventions. New York–London: Routledge.
Sippola Lorrie K., Bukowski William M. 1999. “Self, Other, and Loneliness from a Developmental Perspective”. In: Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence, eds. Ken J. Rotenberg, Shelley Hymel. 280–295. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Snell Keith David Malcolm. 2016. “Modern Loneliness in Historical Perspective”. In: Correlates of Loneliness, ed. Ami Rokach. An eBook by Bentham Science Books, U.A.E.
Solano Cecilia H. 1987. “Loneliness and Perceptions of Control: General Traits versus Specific Attributions”. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality 2(2): 201–214.
Sønderby Lars Christian. 2013. “Loneliness: An Integrative Approach”. Journal of Integrated Social Sciences 3(1): 1–29.
Song Hayeon, Zmyslinski-Seelig Anne, Kim Jinyoung, Drent Adam, Victor Angela, Omori Kikuko, Allen Mike. 2014. “Does Facebook Make you Lonely?: A Meta Analysis”. Computers in Human Behavior 36: 446–452.
Stangier Ulrich, Heidenreich Thomas, Schermelleh-Engel Karin. 2006. “Safety Behaviors and Social Performance in Patients with Generalized Social Phobia”. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 20(1): 17–31.
Stein Jacob Y., Tuval-Mashiach Rivka. 2015. “Loneliness and Isolation in Life-stories of Israeli Veterans of Combat and Captivity”. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 7(2): 122–130.
Stivers Richard. 2004. Shades of Loneliness: Pathologies of a Technological Society. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
Storr Anthony. 1988. Solitude. A Return to the Self. London: Harper and Row.
Stranahan Alexis M., Khalil David, Gould Elizabeth, “Social Isolation Delays the Positive Effects of Running on Adult Neurogenesis”, Nature Neuroscience 9(4) (2006): 526–533.
Sullivan Harry Stack. 1953. The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Thoreau Henry David. 1981. “Walden”. In: Walden and Other Writings by Henry David Thoreau, ed. Joseph Wood Krutch. 105–341. New York: Bantam (original work published 1854).
Tian Yu, Bian Yulong, Han Piguo, Gao Fengqiang, Wang Peng. 2017. “Associations between Psychosocial Factors and Generalized Pathological Internet Use in Chinese University Students: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis”. Computers in Human Behavior 72: 178–188.
Tick Edward. 1988. “Creativity and Loneliness”. Psychotherapy Patient 4(1): 131–137.
Tocqueville Alexander de. 1968. Democracy in America. New York: Collins.
Tönnies Ferdinand, 1957. Community and Society, transl. Charles P. Loomis. Mineola: Dover Publications.
Twenge Jean M., Zhang Liqing, Catanese Cathleen R., Dolan-Pascoe Brenda, Lyche Leif F., Baumeister Roy F. 2007. “Replenishing Connectedness: Reminders of Social Activity Reduce Aggression after Social Exclusion”. British Journal of Social Psychology 46(1): 205–224.
Ullman Liv. 1977. Changing. New York: Random House.
Van Buskirk Ann M., Duke Marshall P. 1991. “The Relationship between Coping Style and Loneliness in Adolescents: Can “Sad Passivity” Be Adaptive”? The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development 152(2): 145–157.
Van Orden Kimberly A., Witte Tracy K., Cukrowicz Kelly C., Braithwaite Scott R., Selby Edward A., Joiner Thomas E., Jr. 2010. “The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide”. Psychological Review 117(2): 575–600.
VanderWeele Tyler J., Hawkley Louise C., Thisted Ronald A., Cacioppo John T. 2011. “A Marginal Structural Model Analysis for Loneliness: Implications for Intervention Trials and Clinical Practice”. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 79(2): 225–235.
Vannucci Anna, Flannery Kaitlin M., Ohannessian Christine McCauley. 2017. “Social Media Use and Anxiety in Emerging Adults”. Journal of Affective Disorders 207: 163–166.
Veith Ilza Fanny. 1980. “Hermits and Recluses: Healing Aspects of Voluntary Withdrawal from Society”. In: The Anatomy of Loneliness, ed. Joseph Hartog, J. Ralph Audy, Yehudi A. Cohen, 537–546. New York: International Universities Press.
Victor Christina R. 2015. “Loneliness and Later Life: Concepts, Prevalence, and Consequences”. In: Addressing loneliness: Coping, prevention and clinical interventions, eds. Ami Sha’ked, Ami Rokach. 185–204. New York–London: Routledge.
Weiss Robert Stuart ed. 1973. Loneliness: The Experience of Emotional and Social Isolation. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Westefeld John S., Furr. Susan R. 1987. “Suicide and Depression Among College Students”. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 18(2): 119–123.
Wilder-Smith Annelies, Freedman David O. 2020. “Isolation, Quarantine, Social Distancing and Community Containment: Pivotal Role for Old-style Public Health Measures in the Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Outbreak”. Journal of Travel Medicine 27: 1–4.
Wilson Robert S., Krueger Kristin R., Arnold Steven E., Schneider Julie A., Kelly Jeremiah F., Barnes Lisa L., Tang Yuxiao, Bennett David A. 2007. “Loneliness and Risk of Alzheimer Disease.” Archives of General Psychiatry 64(2): 234–240.
Woolf Virginia. 1927. To The Lighthouse. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company.
Young Jeffrey E. 1982. “Loneliness, Depression and Cognitive Therapy: Theory and Applications”. In: Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy, eds. Letitia Anne Peplau, Daniel Perlman, 379–405. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Pobrania
Opublikowane
Jak cytować
Numer
Dział
Licencja
Prawa autorskie (c) 2024 Ami Rokach, Samir

Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Bez utworów zależnych 4.0 Międzynarodowe.
Statystyki
Liczba wyświetleń i pobrań: 112
Liczba cytowań: 0