Ultimate criteria for the modern classification of animal reproduction
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/KOSMOS.2025.031Keywords
oviparity, viviparity, vertebrate, lecitotrophy, matrotrophy, incubationAbstract
Modern classification of animal reproduction into oviparity and viviparity is based on two criteria: the product that exits the female (a gamete or egg/an neonate), and the source of fetal nutrition (yolk/matrotrophy). Oviparity, present in all vertebrate classes, involves depositing gametes or embryos in yolk‑filled envelopes formed during vitellogenesis. Viviparity evolved from oviparity through extended embryonic retention. Early forms of viviparity, now termed lecithotrophic viviparity, were difficult to classify, especially in cartilaginous fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, previously grouped as “ovoviviparous.” Viviparity arose many times and independently in all vertebrates, except birds and is defined by prolonged gestation, also after yolk depletion. This shift enhanced fetal protection, increased body mass, and allow for more advanced development. It also required maternal nutrient delivery (matrotrophy), taking through absorption, ingestion, or placental exchange. Similar protective strategies evolved in some fish and amphibians, that incubate embryos outside the female reproductive tract.
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