The Distribution, Nesting Habits and Status of Threatened Vulture Species in Protected Areas of Central India
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/EQ.2021.020Keywords
vulture occupancy, vulture population, vulture density, nesting habitat, nesting density, diclofenac use, National Park and SanctuaryAbstract
Protected Area (PA) establishment is one of the commoner strategies for wildlife conservation, but the effectiveness of these developments is rarely evaluated in terms of species’ performance. This article assesses the effectiveness of PAs of Central India, using an assessment of threatened vulture species. These species may be considered as keystone species in this region. Relevant parameters considered for assessment comprised: (i) the presence and population density of vultures in PAs compared with those in unprotected forests and agricultural landscapes; (ii) counts of the breeding population, nesting preferences and environmental factors for such variables; and (iii) the impacts of policies designed to combat the effects of the deadly diclofenac drug on vulture populations. Quantitative (total counts of vultures and nests, transect surveys) and qualitative (semi-structured interviews, secondary data surveys) methodologies were used in data collection, to provide an adequate information base. White-rumped, Longbilled, Egyptian and Red-headed vultures (resident) and Cinereous Vulture, Eurasian Griffon and Himalayan Griffon (migratory) were recorded in PAs. The probability of vulture occupancy was significantly higher in PAs (44–51%), than in unprotected forest (17.6–17.8%) and agricultural areas (0.03%). The average vulture density in PAs (0.529 ±0.228 km-2 ) was also much higher than in unprotected forest (0.014±0.012 km-2 ) and agricultural areas. The presence of active, inactive and abandoned nests in PAs revealed favorable habitat conditions for breeding, potential breeding and floater vulture categories. Disturbance factors were insignificant. The statutory ban on diclofenac use had a significant impact on vulture populations within the PAs, but this factor was insignificant in surrounding areas. These findings indicate a positive role of PAs in conservation, with insignificant impacts of the diclofenac ban across different types of landcover. It is concluded that increased promotion of environmental education is important to ensure effective vulture conservation and the success of PAs.References
AAR, 2000, Annual Administrative Report. Bhopal: Forest Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh.
Acharya R., Cuthbert R., Baral H.S. & Chaudhary A., 2010, Rapid decline of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Upper Mustang, Nepal. Forktail 26: 117–120.
Acharya R., Cuthbert R., Baral H.S. & Shah K.B., 2009, Rapid population declines of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis in Upper Mustang, Nepal. Bird Conservation International 19: 99–107. doi:10.1017/S0959270908007417.
Alarcon P.A.E. & Lambertucci S.A., 2018, A three-decade review of telemetry studies on vultures and condors. Movement Ecology 6: 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-018-0133-5.
Bamford A.J., Monadjem A. & Hardy I.C.W., 2009, Nesting habitat preference of the African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus and the effects of anthropogenic disturbance. Ibis 51: 51–62.
Bevers M. & Flather C.H., 1999, The distribution and abundance of populations limited at multiple spatial scales. Journal of Animal Ecology 68: 976–987.
Bosakowski T., & Speiser R., 1994, Macrohabitat selection by nesting northern goshawks: implications for managing eastern forests. Study of Avian Biology 16: 46–49.
Bridgeford P. & Bridgeford M., 2003, Ten years of monitoring breeding Lappet-faced Vultures Torgos tracheliotos in the Namib-Naukluft Park, Namibia. Vulture News 48: 3–11.
Bruner A. G., Gullison R.E., Rice R.E. & Fonseca G.A.B., 2001, Effectiveness of parks in protecting tropical biodiversity. Science 291: 125–128.
Buechley E.R., McGrady M.J., Çoban E. & Şekercioğlu Ç.H., 2018., Satellite tracking a wide‑ranging endangered vulture species to target conservation actions in the Middle East and East Africa. Biodiversity & Conservation 27( 9) : 2293–2310. DOI:10.1007/s10531-018-1538-6.
Campbell M.O., 2017, The conservation biology of vultures, [in:] M.O. Campbell (ed.), Biological Conservation in 21st Century: A Conservation Biology of Large Wildlife. Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Carlon J., 1992, Breeding phenology of the Egyptian vulture, World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls. Newsletter 16/17: 12–13.
Caro T., 2010, Conservation by proxy: indicator, umbrella, keystone, flagship, and other surrogate species. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Carrete M., Grande J.M., Tella J.L., Sanchez-Zapata J.A., Donazar J.A., Dıaz-Delgado R. & Romo A., 2007, Habitat, human pressure, and social behavior: Partialling out factors affecting large-scale territory extinction in an endangered Vulture. Biological Conservation 136(1): 143–154.
Ceballos O. & Donazar J.A., 1989, Factors influencing the breeding density and nest site selection of the Egyptian vulture. Journal of Ornithology 130: 353–359.
Chaudhry M.J.I., Ogada D.L., Malik R.N., Virani M.Z. & Giovanni M.D., 2012, First evidence that populations of the critically endangered Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus in Pakistan have increased following the ban of the toxic veterinary drug diclofenac in south Asia, Bird Conservation International 22: 389–397. DOI:10.1017/S0959270912000445
Chomba C., M’simuko E. & Nyirenda V., 2013, Patterns of nest placement of lappet faced vulture (Torgos tracheliotos) in Lochinvar National Park, Kafue Flats, Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology 3(6): 431–437. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oje.2013.36049
Chomba C. & Simuko E.M., 2013, Nesting patterns of raptors; White backed vulture (Gyps africanus) and African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer) in Lochinvar National Park on the kafue flats, Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology 3(5): 325–330.
Coetzee B.W.T., Gaston K.J. & Chown S.L., 2014, Local Scale Comparisons of Biodiversity as a Test for Global Protected Area Ecological Performance: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE 9(8): e105824. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0105824
Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010, Strategic plan for biodiversity 2011–2020 - COP 10, decision X/2. Montreal, Canada.
Cortes-Avizanda A., Jovani R., Donazar J.A. & Grimm V., 2014, Bird sky networks: how do avian scavengers use social information to find carrion? Ecology 95: 1799–808.
Cuthbert R.J., Taggart M.A., Saini M., Sharma A., Das A., Kulkarni M.D., Deori P., Ranade S., Shiringarpure R.N, Galligan T.N. & Green R.E., 2016, Continuing mortality of vultures in India associated with illegal veterinary use of diclofenac and a potential threat from nimesulide. Oryx 50(1): 104–112. DOI:10.1017/S003060531500037X
Cuthbert R.J., Dave R., Chakraborty S.S., Kumar S., Prakash S., Ranade S.P. & Prakash V., 2017, Assessing the ongoing threat from veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Critically Endangered Gyps vultures in India. Oryx 45(3): 420–426. DOI:10.1017/S0030605311000135
Del Hoyo J., Elliot A. & Sargatal J., 1994, Handbook of the birds of the world, New world vultures to guineafowl, Vol 2. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
DeVault T.L., Beasley J.C., Olson Z.H., Moleon M., Carrete M., Margalida A. & Sanchez-Zapata J.A., 2016, Ecosystem Services Provided by Avian Scavengers, [in:] C.H. Şekercioglu, D.G. Wenny, C.J. Whelan (eds), Why Birds Matter: Avian Ecological Function and Ecosystem Services. University of Chicago Press Chicago, pp. 235–270.
Ervin J., 2003, Protected area assessments in perspective. BioScience 53: 819–822.
FSI., 2011, Atlas: Forest Types of India. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun.
Galligan T.H., Amano T., Prakash V.M., Kulkarni M., Shringarpure R., Prakash N., Ranade S., Green R.E. & Cuthbert R.J., 2014, Have population declines in Egyptian Vulture and Redheaded Vulture in India slowed since the 2006 ban on veterinary diclofenac? Bird Conservation International / FirstView Article / April 2014, pp. 1–10. DOI: 10.1017/S0959270913000580.
Galligan T.H., Mallord J.W., Prakash V.M., Bhusal K.P., Alam A.B.M.S., Anthony F.M., Dave R., Dube A., Shastri K., Kumar Y., Prakash N., Ranade S., Shringarpure R., Chapagain D., Chaudhary I.P., Joshi A.B., Paudel K., Kabir T., Ahmed S., Azmiri K.Z., Cuthbert R.J., Bowden C.G.R. & Green R.E., 2020, Trends in the availability of the vulture-toxic drug, diclofenac, and other NSAIDs in South Asia, as revealed by covert pharmacy surveys. Bird Conservation International (2020), page 1 of 17. DOI:10.1017/S0959270920000477
Galvez N., Hernandez F., Laker J., Gilabert H., Petitpas R., Bonacic C., Gimona A., Hester A. & MacDonald D.W., 2013, Forest cover outside protected areas plays an important role in the conservation of the Vulnerable guiña Leopardus guigna. Oryx 47: 251–258.
Gaston K.J., Jackson S.F., Cantu-Salazar L. & Cruz-Pinon G., 2008, The ecological performance of protected areas. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 39: 93–113.
Hardey J., Crick H., Wenham C., Riley H., Etheridge B. & Thompson D., 2009, Raptors. A field guide for surveys and monitoring. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh.
Henriques M., Granadeiro J.P., Monteiro H., Nuno A., Lecoq M., Cardoso P., Regalla A., Catry P., 2018, Not in wilderness: African vulture strongholds remain in areas with high human density. PLOS One 13(1): e0190594. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190594
Hollander F.A., Van Dyck H., San Martin G. & Titeux N., 2011, Maladaptive habitat selection of a migratory passerine bird in a human-modified landscape. PLoS One 6: e25703.
ISFR, 2011, India State Forest Report. 9.15 Madhya Pradesh. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun.
Janes S.W., 1985, Habitat selection in raptorial birds, [in:] M.L. Cody (ed.), Habitat selection in birds. Academic, San Diego, (pp. 159–188.
Jha K.K., 2017, Vulture Atlas – Central India, MP. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India.
Jha K.K., 2018, Mapping and Management of Vultures in Indian stronghold, [in:] M.O. Campbell (ed.), Biological Conservation and Geomatics. NOVA Science Publisher, New York, pp. 45–75.
Jha K.K., Campbell M.O. & Jha R., 2020, Vultures, their population status and some ecological aspects in an Indian stronghold. Notulae Scientia Biologicae 12(1): 124–142. DOI:10.15835/nsb12110547.
Jha K.K. & Jha R., 2020, Habitat suitability mapping for migratory and resident vultures: A case of Indian stronghold and species distribution model. Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity 4(3): 91-111.
Jha K.K. & Jha R., 2021, Study of Vulture Habitat Suitability and Impact of Climate Change in Central India Using MaxEnt. Journal of Resources and Ecology. 12(1): 30-42. DOI: 10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2021.01.004
Juffe-Bignoli D., Burgess N.D., Bingham H., Belle E.M.S., de Lima M.G., Deguignet M., Bertzky B., Milam A.N., Martinez-Lopez J., Lewis E., Eassom A., Wicander S., Geldmann J., van Soesbergen A., Arnell A.P., O’Connor B., Park S., Shi Y.N., Danks F.S., MacSharry B. & Kingston N., 2014, Protected planet report 2014. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, England.
Kalinkat G., Cabral J.S., Darwall W., Ficetola G.F., Fisher J.L., Giling D.P., Gosselin M.-P., Grossart H.-P., Jahnig S.C., Jeschke J.M., Knopfe K., Larsen S., Onandia G., Patzig M., Saul W.C., Singer G., Sperfeld E. & Jaric I., 2017, Flagship umbrella species needed for the conservation of overlooked aquatic biodiversity. Conservation Biology 31(2): 481–485. DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12813
Kamp J., Koshkin M.A., Bragina T.M., Katzner T.E., Milner-Gulland E.J., Schreiber D., Sheldon R., Shmalenko A., Smelansky I., Terraube J. & Urazaliev R., 2016, Persistent and novel threats to the biodiversity of Kazakhastan’s steppes and semi-deserts. Biodiversity Conservation 25: 2521–2541.
Kendall C.J., Rubenstein D.I., Slater P.L. & Monadjem A., 2017, An assessment of tree availability as a possible cause of population declines in scavenging raptors. Journal of Avian Biology 48: 001–008. DOI: 10.1111/jav.01497.
Kolahi M., Sakai T., Moriya K., Makhdoum M.F. & Koyama L., 2013, Assessment of the Effectiveness of Protected Areas Management in Iran: Case Study in Khojir National Park. Environmental Management 52: 514–530. DOI 10.1007/s00267-013-0061-5
Kruger S.C., Simmons R.E. & Amar A., 2015, Anthropogenic activities influence the abandonment of Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) territories in southern Africa. Condor 117: 94–107.
Kudo T., Ozaki K., Takao G., Sakai Yonekawa H. & Ikeda K., 2005, Landscape analysis of northern goshawk breeding home range in northern Japan. Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 1229–1239.
Lewis E., McSharry B., Juffe-Bignoli D., Harris N., Burrows G., Kingston N., Burrows G., Kingston N. & Burgess N.D., 2017, Dynamics in the global protected-area estate since 2004. Conservation Biology 33: e32529. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13056
Liberatori F. & Penteriani V., 2001, A long-term analysis of the declining population of the Egyptian vulture in the Italian peninsula: distribution, habitat preference, productivity and conservation implications. Biological Conservation 101: 381–389.
Majgaonkar I., Bowden C.G.R. & Quader S., 2018, Nesting success and nest-site selection of white-rumped vultures (Gyps bengalensis) in western Maharashtra, India. Journal of Raptor Research 52(4): 431–442.
Mandhani A., November 7, 2017 (LiveLaw.in). https://www.livelaw.in/madras-hc-upholds-ban-multiple-dosage-diclofenac-save-vultures-read-order/
Marinkovic S.P., Orlandic L.B., Skoric S.B. & Karadzic B.D., 2012, Nest-Site Preference of Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Herzegovina. Archives of Biological Science, Belgrade 64 (1): 385-392.
Markandya A., Taylor T., Longo A., Murty M.N., Murty S. & Dhavala K., 2008, Counting the cost of vulture decline – An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India. Ecological Economics 67(2): 194–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.04.020
Maslo B., Leu K., Faillace C., Weston M.A., Pover T. & Schlacher T.A., 2016, Selecting umbrella species for conservation: A test of habitat models and niche overlap for beach-nesting birds. Biological Conservation 203: 233–242.
McGrady M.J., Grant J.R., Bainbridge I.P. & Mcleod D.R.A., 2002, A model of golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) ranging behavior. Journal of Raptor Research 36(Suppl): 62–69.
Mdhlano S.F., Gandiwa, E., Muboko N. & Mashapa C., 2018, Local knowledge and perceptions of vulture conservation in communities living adjacent to the northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Vulture News 74. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/vulnew.v74i1.1
Mihoub J-B., Jiguet F., Lecuyer P., Eliotout B. & Sarrazin F., 2013, Modelling nesting site suitability in a population of reintroduced Eurasian black vultures Aegypius monachus in the Grands Causses, France. Oryx 48(1): 116–124. DOI: 10.1017/S0030605312000634
Monadjem A., 2001, Observations on the African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus nesting at Mlawula Nature Reserve, Swaziland. Vulture News 45: 3–10.
Monadjem A., 2003, Nest site selection by African White-backed Vulture in Swaziland. Vulture News 48: 24–26.
Monadjem A. & Garcelon D.K., 2005, Nesting distribution of vultures in relation to land use in Swaziland. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2079–2093. DOI: 10.1007/s10531-004-4358-9
Monadjem A., Wolter K., Neser W. & Bildstein K., 2016, Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus and African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus nesting at the Olifants River Private Nature Reserve, Limpopo province, South Africa. Ostrich 87(2): 113–117. DOI: 10.2989/00306525.2016.1179690
Morales-Reyes Z., Perez-Garcia J.M., Moleon M., Botella F., Carrete M., Donazar J.A., Cortes-Avizanda A., Arrondo E., Moreno-Opo R., Jimenez J., Margalida A. & Sanchez-Zapata J.A., 2016, Evaluation of the network of protection areas for the feeding of scavengers in Spain: from biodiversity conservation to greenhouse gas emission savings. Journal of Applied Ecology 54: 1120–1129. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12833
Moran-Lopez R., Guzman J.M.S., Borrego E.C. & Sanchez A.V., 2005, Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9: 29–37. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2005.00003.x
Morant J., Zabala J., Martınez J.E. & Zuberogoitia I., 2018, Out of sight, out of mind? Testing the effects of overwinter habitat alterations on breeding territories of a migratory endangered species. Animal Conservation 21(6): 465–473. DOI:10.1111/acv.12412
Mundy P., 1982, The Comparative Biology of Southern African Vultures. Vulture Study Group, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Murn C., Combrink L., Ronaldson G.S., Thompson C. & Botha A., 2013, Population estimates of three vulture species in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Ostrich 84: 1-9.
Murn C., Mundy P., Virani M.Z., Borello W.D., Holloway G.J. & Thiollay J.M., 2016, Using Africa’s protected area network to estimate the global population of a threatened and declining species: a case study of the Critically Endangered white-headed vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis. Ecology and Evolution 6: 1092–1103.
Nambirajan K., Muralidharan S., Roy A.A. & Manonmani S., 2017, Residues of Diclofenac in Tissues of Vultures in India: A Post‑ban Scenario. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 74(2): 292–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0480-z
Naughton-Treves L., Holland M.B. & Brandon K., 2005, The role of protected areas in conserving biodiversity and sustaining local livelihoods. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30: 219–52. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.164507
Newton I., 2010, Population ecology of raptors. Poyser Monographs, Bloomsburry Publishing, London.
Ogada D., Shaw P., Beyers R.L., Buij R., Murn C., Thiollay J-M., Beale C.M., Holdo R.M., Pomeroy D., Baker N., Krüger S.C., Botha A., Virani M.Z., Monadjem A. & Sinclair A.R.E., 2016, Another continental vulture crisis: Africa's vultures collapsing toward extinction. Conservation Letter 9: 89–97.
Oppel S., Dobrev V., Arkumarev V., Saravia V., Bounas A., Manolopoulos A., Kret E., Velevski M., Popgeorgiev G.S. & Nikolov S.C., 2016, Landscape factors affecting territory occupancy and breeding success of Egyptian Vultures on the Balkan Peninsula. Journal of Ornithology 158: 443-457. DOI: 10.1007/s10336-016-1410-y
Paudel K., Bhusal K.P., Acharya R., Chaudhary A., Baral H.S., Chaudhary I.P., Green R.E., Cuthbert R.J. & Galligan T.H., 2016, Is the population trend of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Upper Mustang, Nepal, shaped by diclofenac? Forktail 32: 54–57.
Pfeiffer M.B., Venter J.A. & Downs C.T., 2016, Cliff characteristics, neighbour requirements and breeding success of the colonial Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres. Ibis 159: 26–37.
Phipps W.L., Willis S.G., Wolter K. & Naidoo V., 2013, Foraging ranges of immature African white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) and their use of protected areas in southern Africa. PLoS One 8(1): e52813.
Poirazidis K., Goutner V., Skartsi T. & Stamou G., 2004, Modelling nesting habitat as a conservation tool for the Eurasian black vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Dadia Nature Reserve, northeastern Greece. Biological Conservation 118: 235–248.
Prakash V., Galligan T.H., Chakraborty S.S., Dave R., Kulkarni M.D., Prakash N., Shringarpure R.N., Ranade S.P. & Green R.E., 2017, Recent changes in populations of Critically Endangered Gyps vultures in India. Bird Conservation International 29(1): 55–70. DOI: 10.1017/S0959270917000545
Prakash V., Green R.E., Pain D.J., Ranade S.P., Saravanan S., Prakash N., Venkitachalam R., Cuthbert R., Rahmani A.R. & Cunningham A.A., 2007, Recent changes in populations of resident Gyps vultures in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 104(2): 129-135.
Prommer M., Bagyura J., Chavko J. & Uhrin M., 2012, Migratory movements of central and eastern European Saker falcons (Falco cherrug) from juvenile dispersal to adulthood. Aquila 119: 111–134.
Protected Planet, 2021, Discover the world’s protected areas. Retrieved from https://www.protectedplanet.net/en
Richards N.L., Gilbert M., Taggart M. & Naidoo V., 2017, A Cautionary Tale: Diclofenac and Its Profound Impact on Vultures. Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene, pp. 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.09990-5
Roberge J-M. & Angelstam P., 2004, Usefulness of the umbrella species concept as a conservation tool Conservation Biology 18: 76–85.
Rodrigues A.S.L., Andelman S.J., Bakarr M.I., Boitani L., Brooks T.M., Cowling R.M., Fishpool L.D.C., da Fonseca G.A.B., Gaston K.J., Hoffmann M., Long J.S., Marquet P.A., Pilgrim J.D., Pressey R.L., Schipper J., Sechrest W., Stuart S.N., Underhill L.G., Waller R.W., Watts M.E.J. & Yan X., 2004, Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity. Nature 428: 640–643.
Rodriguez-Lado, L. & Tapia L., 2012, Suitable breeding habitat for golden eagle (Aquila chrysaëtos) in a border of distribution area in northwestern Spain: advantages of using remote sensing information vs land use maps. Vie et Milieu 62: 77–85.
Ruxton G.D. & Houston D.C., 2004, Obligate vertebrate scavengers must be large soaring fliers. Journal of Theoretical Biology 228: 431–436.
Safford R., Andevski J., Botha A., Bowden C.G.R., Crockford N., Garbett R., Margalida A., Ramírez I., Shobrak M., Tavares J. & Williams N.P., 2019, Vulture conservation: the case for urgent action. Bird Conservation International 29: 1–9. DOI: 10.1017/S0959270919000042
Saini M., Taggart M.A., Knopp D., Upreti S., Swarup D., Das A., Gupta P.K., Niessner R., Prakash V., Mateo R. & Cuthbert R.J., 2012, Detecting diclofenac in livestock carcasses in India with an ELISA: A tool to prevent widespread vulture poisoning. Environmental Pollution 160: 11–16.
Santangeli A., Girardello M., Buechley E., Botha A., Di Minin E. & Moilanen A., 2019, Priority areas for conservation of Old World vultures. Conservation Biology 33(5): 1056–1065. DOI: 10.1111/cobi.13282
Sara M. & Di Vittorio M., 2003, Factors influencing the distribution, abundance and nest-site selection of an endangered Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) population in Sicily. Animal Conservation 6: 1–12. DOI: 10.1017/S1367943002004000
Seddon P.J. & Leech T., 2008, Conservation short cut, or long and winding road? A critique of umbrella species criteria. Oryx 42: 240–245.
Sen B., Tavers J.P. & Bilgin C.C., 2017, Nest site selection patterns of a local Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus population in Turkey. Bird Conservation International 27: 568–581. DOI: 10.1017/S0959270916000411
Sergio F., Marchesi L. & Pedrini P., 2004, Integrating individual habitat choices and regional distribution of a biodiversity indicator and top predator. Journal of Biogeography 31: 619–628.
SFRI, 2016, Status Report: Tigers. Co-predators and prey in protected areas of Madhya Pradesh. State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, MP, India.
Shultz S., Baral H.S., Charman S., Cunningham A.A., Das D., Ghalsasi G.R., Goudar M.S., Green R.E., Jones A., Nighot P., Pain D.J. & Prakash V., 2004, Diclofenac poisoning is widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent. Biology Letters 271: 458–460.
Stem C., Margoluis R., Salafsky N. & Brown M., 2005, Monitoring and evaluation in conservation: a review of trends and approaches. Conservation Biology 19: 295–309.
Subedi T.R., Virani M.Z., Gurung S., Buij R., Baral H.S., Buechley E.R., Anadon J.D. & Sah S.A.M., 2018, Estimation of population density of bearded vultures using line-transect distance sampling and identification of perceived threats in the Annapurna Himalaya range of Nepal. Journal Raptor Research 52(4): 443–453.
Sweke E.A., Assam J.M., Chande A.I., Mbonde A.S., Mosha M. & Mtui A., 2016, Comparing the Performance of Protected and Unprotected Areas in Conserving Freshwater Fish Abundance and Biodiversity in Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania. International Journal of Ecology Volume 2016, Article ID 7139689, 7 pp. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/7139689.
Taggart M.A., Senacha K.R., Green R.E., Jhala Y.V., Raghavan B., Rahmani A.R., Cuthbert R., Pain D.J. & Meharg A.A., 2007, Diclofenac residues in carcasses of domestic ungulates available to vultures in India. Environment International 33: 759–765.
Tanferna A., Lopez-Jimenez L., Blas J., Horaldo F. & Sergio F., 2013, Habitat selection by black kite breeders and floaters: implications for conservation management of raptor floaters. Biological Conservation 160: 1–9.
Tapia L. & Zuberogoitia I., 2018, Breeding and Nesting Biology in Raptors, [in:] J.H. Sarasola, J.M. Grande, J.J. Negro (eds), Birds of Prey. Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018, pp. 63–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73745-4_3
Tarboton W.R. & Allan D.G., 1984, The Status and Conservation of Birds of Prey in the Transvaal. Transvaal Museum Monograph 3, Pretoria, South Africa.
Thakur M.L. & Narang S.K., 2012, Population status and habitat-use pattern of Indian White-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis) in Himachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment 4(7): 173–180.
Thiollay J.M., 2006, The decline of raptors in West Africa: long-term assessment and the role of protected areas. Ibis 148: 240–254.
Virani M., Kirui P., Monadjem A., Thomsett S. & Githiru M., 2010, Nesting status of African White-backed Vultures Gyps africanus in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Ostrich 81(3): 205–209.
Virani M.Z., Kendall C., Njoroge P. & Thomsett S., 2011, Major declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya. Biological Conservation 144: 746–752.
Vlachos C.G., Papageorgiu N.K. & Bakaloudis D.E., 1998, Effects of the feeding station establishment on the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in Dadia Forest, north eastern Greece, [in:] B.U. Meyburg, R.D. Chancellor (eds), Holarctic birds of prey. WWGBP, London, UK.
Watson J.E.M., Dudley N., Segan D.B. & Hockings M., 2014, The performance and potential of protected areas. Nature 515: 67–73.
Zuberogoitia I., Gonzalez-Oreja J.A., Martínez J.E., Zabala J., Gomez I. & Lopez-Lopez P., 2013, Foraging movements of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus): implications for supplementary feeding management. European Journal of Wildlife Research 59: 421–429.
Zuberogoitia I., Zabala J., Martinez J.E., Gonzalez-Oreja J.A. & Lopez-Lopez P., 2014, Effective conservation measures to mitigate the impact of human disturbances on the endangered Egyptian vulture. Animal Conservation 17: 410–418.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Ecological Questions
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nd/4.0/88x31.png)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Stats
Number of views and downloads: 659
Number of citations: 11