„Domestic and foreign” in cultural landscape of mediaeval Polish grounds
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12775/AHP.2013.007Abstract
The article purpose is to indicate some questions and problems concerning transformations of cultural landscape of Central Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, with particular concern turned towards Polish grounds. The attention was mainly directed to colonization effects and cultural influences, transported from the West in 13th century. Simultaneously, an attempt was undertaken to outline references to the role of substrates of ‘domestic’ and ‘foreign’ in forming civilization picture of late Middle Ages. The research was based on observations of transformations occurring in villages, towns, elites’ seats, mining centers, together with accompanying settlement, craftsmanship, and objects of material culture related with it, both usable and symbolic ones.
Village. Mediaeval village is not in Polish archaeology a subject of intense studies. Its picture and conditions shaping it in the area of Central Eastern Europe can be concluded first of all on the base of historic literature and elaborations of Czech and German archaeologists (Klápště 2005, pp. 167–292; Biermann 2010). It is stated that economical and settlement transformations took place during inflows of colonists settled on the ground in accordance with new law. Intensification of agricultural production resulted from agrarian techniques, improvement, resigning of present feudal charges and introducing rent in coins or crops.
Strongholds and castles. There is a fundamental difference between a ducal or royal early mediaeval stronghold and a private feudal castle. Superior function of the first mentioned was administrative regulation of state matters, while the others cared for managing their own property and emphasizing their belonging to social elites. The studied areas presented readable signs of their mutual overlapping and coexisting. Constructive and technical elements of a feudal castle were introduced from the turn of 12th century. However, evolution of its social function was blocked by state control of fortified constructions erecting. External patterns had to be adjusted to local reality, both in social and economic dimensions. Castles built in 13th century were still dynastic properties. Private fortified complexes appeared in 14th century and economic conditions decided about their predominant forms. Apart from state castles of a relatively high quality, rather modest private manors, referring to construction of motte type were erected.
Towns. Until 13th century there had existed in the grounds of Central Eastern Europe centers which could be defined as proto towns. They concentrated administrative, military, religious and economic functions. Patterns from outside, brought in 13th century new social town structures, new character of financial obligations, new model of economy. Spatial organization enabling functioning in new reality was also transformed. Mutual relations between the burghers and the town authority was regulated by legal agreement. Studying ‘domestic and foreign’ in 13th century towns we conclude that town inhabitants are also foreign elements. The town ruler – a duke or Church hierarch appearing as an entrepreneur of an investment within his land is a ‘domestic’ element. The biggest and the richest towns were created by overtaking the functions of big centers already existing. The smaller ones were frequently organized at local administrative and military centers.
Mining. Obtaining mineral raw material by mining was one of the base of a process defined sometimes as commercialization of Central Eastern Europe. Transforming fiscal system into money obligations and town development in constant progress together with non agrarian economy created the situation that own ore sources became the catalyst of economic increase. The picture of mining before the reception of western patterns should be regarded as a very moderate one and it displays only salt mining in Bochnia and Wieliczka, based on technologically simple method of taking out saline solution. Lead mining in the borderline of Silesian – Lesser Poland is also of local genesis, confirmed both by written sources and archaeological ones excavated recently. Intensification of mining and steel milling activities in 13th century was connected with the increase of economic significance of Sudetes-Carpathians zone. Its reasons are complex; and identifying it with simple acceptance of external patterns would be a simplification of the problem. In general, it was rather the growing demand for non-ferrous metals, resulting from accelerated region economic development. We see in it the cause of creating gold and silver mines in Przedgórze Sudeckie and the Sudetes. The mining activity was accompanied by new rural backup and located towns, and all that system was controlled from newly erected castles. Mining techniques employed did not differ from the ones known in 12th century in the Black Forest, Harz and Saxony.
Craftsmanship. Accelerating economic development and production increase was one of characteristic features of late Middle Ages in Central Eastern Europe. It was possible, among the others, due to implementing in the large scale, the tools and techniques enabling multiplications in obtaining almost identical objects, ornaments etc. during manufacturing process. Spectrum of productive raw materials expanded substantially. Activity of local artistic pottery is today exceptionally well documented. Some of the workshops manufactured, except for ceramics of daily usage, products which can be classified as artistic items – tiles or figures of religious or ludic meaning. Small figurative artistic items were also made of metal, mainly tin. In late Middle Ages and early modern times, imitations of forms and ornaments known earlier in the West, changing only the raw material, were frequently practiced. It is often observed that ornament and form of clay objects refer to glass items.
Museum collections have preserved numerous historic artifacts connected with flourishing guild activity with interesting manufacturers’ signs pressed with a stamp on the products.
Trade. Appearance of credits and procedures connected with these facts were the novelties in social life, however, tracing these phenomena escape, unfortunately, the archaeological research. We note better situation in case of pawns, to which three deposits from: Środa Śląska, Opole and Szczecin are classified. The main market place became the center of all trades, and in bigger towns there were more smaller side ones with narrow specialization. Within this square, defined as ‘fair place’, besides buildings connected with authorities’ functioning (town hall, pillory), market functioning facilities appeared: cloth hall, town scales, mints, metal melting posts and stalls. Obvious reference to legal rules is clearly marked, manifested at the market place by, e.g. a figure of Roland, a hat, gloves, etc. The town hall or a special scales building room patterns of measures and scales. The character of scales and weights also changed. They were made of copper alloys, and besides old marking traditions connected with weigh-currency system, signs of ownership and guarantee: state – royal, ducal, urban appeared. Folded scales, known before, were still dominating. Rarely, the scales had a coin imprint or an image of St. George. Scales for weighing coins became smaller and flatter in form of a triangle and a circle. Wooden or more rarely metal examples of scales for quick establishing the proper weigh of a coin were absolute novelty. In late Middle Ages, the ’grzywna’ (mark), which mass in various countries was different, but all of them had their origin in Koln unit with the weigh of about 233 g, was a basic weigh measuring unit. It divided into 4 wiarduneks, 8 ounces and 16 drams, 24 skojecs. Nominal interest rate was 240 and as it is always in case of money, it was often much higher than the real interest rate. At the territory of Kingdom of Poland and Silesia ‘the grzywna’ with the weigh of about 197 g was established and it is defined as Polish, Krakow or Wrocław ‘grzywna’. In territories where bracteates dominated, special metal containers (Brakteatendose) for their storing appeared. In 14th century Silesia started to mint also gold coins. Due to the fact of cloth trade development, lead seals and seal pliers appeared. In turn, because of dynamic cattle trade, stamps for marking animals were produced.
Kitchen utensils and table culture. In late Middle Ages, table sets underwent significant modernization and diversification; collection of forms and material became much richer. Besides clay and wooden tableware being in predominance before, vessels of glass and tin appeared. Spoon and knife were still basic cutlery, sometimes richly ornamented knives for serving dishes were used. Wooden plank dishes were still popular, but wheel thrown vessels started to appear now and then. Glass dishes, treated in general as Czech products characterized with significant diversity.
Badges. With limited command of writing an image, picture was an important mean of social communications, because it was easy to multiply it. The fact is confirmed by tin badges with a pin, loops to sew or a small tongue which after placing it in textile was bent down. Images on these badges depict totality of mediaeval life, both in profanum, and sacrum spheres. The problem is, however, to interpret correctly symbolics and functions of these objects.
Scholarization. Late Middle Ages is a period of increase in a number of literate people. Command of writing and counting rules were indispensable for financial operations performing. This progress has left the traces in form of material heritage, like school buildings, but also wax tablets with school exercises or merchant calculations, leather tablet cases, very richly ornamented, styluses and inkpots. Writing and reading in poor light caused sight worsening, therefore spectacles were being manufactured.
Court culture. Appearance of knighthood was not only connected with fortified seats or armory, but also with forming a particular court (knightly) culture, with its phenomenon known as courtly love, which material signs are more and more frequent in archaeological finds in Polish grounds. They consist of amulets, wreaths/diadems and gifts with symbols of faith and love.
Piety. Bone relics of rosaries production are the most frequently spotted material sign of townsmen piety. Devotional accessories include also rarely found crosses and figures of saints, small jugs of Hansekanne type with religious plaques and pilgrims’ plaques.
Hygiene and cosmetics. We do not observe any revolutionary changes in hygiene accessories forms in the late Middle Ages. Double-sided combs occur more often and they are a little shorter than examples of early Middle Ages. Metal lavabo rarely appeared in burghers house, they were made rather of clay. Mirrors were the novelty.
Ornaments and clothes accessories. Garments. Temple bows had been the main ornament of Slavic women of early Middle Ages, they gradually disappeared in 13th century. Rings from the same period were characterized by simplicity of forms, but had been made of various materials. Late mediaeval period changed the assortment of jewelry. Hair pins and neck decorations appeared, and rings became more sophisticated in forms. Distinguishing separated ornaments from dress accessories is not always possible. Belt clasps and fittings also changed into more elaborated.
Footwear is rather well recognized, with pattens as a new type. This originally outside protective footwear transformed with time into sophisticated richly ornamented women sandals.
*
Studies on ‘domestic’ and ‘foreign’ elements of mediaeval Polish grounds’ culture after the civilization breakthrough observed in 13th century seem to prove that barely few of the analyzed phenomena can be obviously defined as syncretist phenomena. Simultaneously, the comparison of selected aspects of life in early and late Middle Ages was made constituting good base for discussion on the character of changes, defined in short as colonization. The answer to the question when late Middle Ages starts in Polish territories is not univocal. These grounds are strongly culturally diversified. Hanseatic Baltic zone, Silesia and Krakow, where novelties appear much earlier distinguish from the other parts of the Kingdom of Poland.
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