“Scientia et Fides” (SetF) is an open access online journal published twice a year. It is promoted by the Faculty of Theology of Nicolaus Copernicus University, in Torun, in collaboration with the Group of Research “Science, Reason, and Faith” (CRYF), at University of Navarra. SetF aims to present rigorous research works regarding different aspects of the relationship between science and religion. For this reason, SetF articles are not confined to the methodology of a single discipline and may cover a wide range of topics, provided that the interdisciplinary dialogue between science and religion is tackled. The Journal accepts articles written in English, Spanish, Polish, French, Italian and German, which will be evaluated by a peer-review process. "Scientia et Fides" is clasified as Q1 in Philosophy and Q1 in Religious Studies according to Scimago. "Scientia et Fides" journal is listed in the following databases: - CiteFactor (Impact factor 0,82), - Dialnet, - Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), - Emerging Sources Citation Index, - e-Revist@s: Plataforma open access de revistas científicas eletrónicas españolas y latinoaméricanas, - Erih Plus, - Google Scholar, - Index Copernicus International (ICV 2024154.00), - Information Matrix for the Analysis of Journals (MIAR), - REDIB, - Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR), - Scopus, - The American Theological Library Association (ATLA) - The Philosopher's Index <!-- [if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!-- [if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> 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Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu
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Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Mind and Soul
Research across cognitive science, psychology of religion, linguistics, philosophy, and anthropology emphasizes the intertwined concepts mind and soul in shaping individuals’ perceptions. Both mind and soul significantly impact human intuitions, incorporating psychological, cognitive, religious, moral, and emotional dimensions. Correcting traditional dualistic perspectives on the mind-body relationship, recent studies advocate for a tripartite model (body, mind, and soul) to offer a holistic and nuanced comprehension of human cognition. Our investigation, spanning Catholic Poland (n = 225), Orthodox Ukraine (n = 272), and Islamic Kazakhstan (n = 198), validates the intuitive association of the soul beyond the mind. The results suggest that the soul operates independently of the mind, reflecting deep cultural and religious integration into human cognition. The ethical implications of distinguishing the soul from the mind are evident in participants’ moral dilemma judgments. This research advances cross-cultural comprehension of cultural influences on mental concept development in social contexts.
Copyright (c) 2026 Arkadiusz Gut, Michał Wilczewski, Oleg Gorbaniuk, Olena Kuts, Aidana Amangaldi , Ludmyla Romanovska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Traditional Sunni commentaries of verses 33:72, 6:38, 24:41, and 2:30 of the Qur’an make it clear that Sunni exegetes endorsed the belief that creatures, imbued with consciousness, who were subject to moral law, and similar to humans, existed long before the creation of Adam. This would seem to allow creationism, human exceptionalism, and Adamic exceptionalism. However, traditional Sunni scholars dissociate the existence of creatures before and with Adam from he and his early progeny interbreeding with them. The qualifier of ‘single’ in Q4:1 is taken by Sunni exegetes as textual proof of exclusive descent from Adam, which would preclude Adamic exceptionalism. Yet the acceptance of human-jinn unions by some scholars in the Islamic tradition casts doubt on whether all exegetes would have denounced Adamic exceptionalism if that option were available. On the other hand, the fact that most Sunni exegetes accept Eve was created from Adam’s rib in order to affirm exclusive descent from Adam intimates that this would be their preference. The exceptionally high bar of universal scholarly agreement required for a consensus on the issue of exclusive descent cannot be claimed. Whether the more realistic bar of majority consensus is attained on this issue continues to be a vexed question. Further, it is difficult to argue that this majority consensus, even if it were attained, would be doctrinally binding since it only represents an exegetical consensus that is inherently of low evidentiary value. Therefore, all we can legitimately claim is most traditional Sunni exegetes’ views would only be consistent with creationism or human exceptionalism.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ismail Lala https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
The article explores and critically reexamines the popular notion that biological evolution leaves little room for metaphysical freedom and free will. It guides the reader through a selection of emerging paradigms in evolutionary and theoretical biology, including the theories of autocatalysis, autopoiesis, epigenetics, and systems ecology, moving towards biosemiotics as its main focus. Special attention is given to the role of the chance-necessity interplay, the (physical) laws of nature, and the alleged directionality of evolution, as well as to the role and the scope of natural selection. The goal is to show how non-classical biology – and especially the emerging field of biosemiotics – can contribute to a better understanding of freedom as enhanced by, harnessed by, or even intrinsic to biological evolution. In doing so, the article also highlights the insights biosemiotics offers for broader engagement between theological methodology and the natural sciences (and vice versa). First, the classical Neo-Darwinian account of chance and necessity is contrasted with alternative approaches. The article then briefly presents key features of the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) and the organismal approach in biology, focusing on the concept of biological autonomy. Finally, it argues for the novelty of the biosemiotic paradigm in accommodating the notions of freedom, agency, and choice, and in methodologically engaging other disciplines, including theology. The conclusion points to possible implications for fundamental theological ethics and anthropology, as well as directions for future research in the field of science and theology.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mateusz Jarmuzewski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Regarding animal suffering —a theological problem that relatively recent developments intensify—, I propose two points. (1) For human holiness to be able to emerge, we humans must possess a double inheritance. On the one hand, in our immediate evolutionary past we acquired two immensely adaptive capacities –firstly, the ability to grasp others’ mental contents, and, later, the self-directed speech, which enhances the self-control that had previously emerged at protecting and improving one’s own reputation, i.e., one’s own social interests. On the other hand, we inherit from an enormously long evolutionary process the pleasure–pain pair. This pair, which serves as a guide for behavior, is essential for both animals and humans; yet at times it obscures the knowledge that we, unlike non-human animals, possess of another person’s mental contents. Thus, a conflict arises between pursuing my physical and social interests, prompted by my pleasure/pain, or, by contrast, recognizing that the needs of another person are also important. Consequently, since this conflict makes human holiness possible, we can say that the progressive evolution of animal suffering was one of the causes that made human holiness possible. (2) The horrendous nature of human suffering need not be attributed to the suffering of animals. In moments of pain or danger, animals focus solely on the immediate future as framed by their goal of escaping. This is the only adaptive animal behavior in such situations. By contrast, humans additionally deploy their capacity to evoke past experiences, non-immediate futures, or even states they have already realized are impossible to attain, all of which can at times be useful in the attempt to creatively find a way to escape, but, when they are not, greatly amplify pain.
Copyright (c) 2026 Teresa Bejarano https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Debates on AI primarily focus on its moral implications and capacity to simulate religious experiences. However, an analysis of pilgrimage offers a unique perspective on broader transformations in religious practice, ranging from traditional spiritual journeys to modern, technology-assisted routes organized by travel agencies. Equipped with technological conveniences, emphasize efficiency and participant satisfaction, raising theological questions about the essence of pilgrimage itself. Used thomistic structure of argumentation (objections, counterarguments, and response) to examine three key issues: (1) whether AI can participate in a pilgrimage in a spiritual sense, (2) whether technological elimination of hardship diminishes the transformative potential of pilgrimage, and (3) whether cyberpilgrimage constitutes a legitimate alternative to physical pilgrimage. Drawing on classical metaphysics and contemporary AI research, the study argues that AI, lacking a rational soul, free will, and an intrinsic orientation toward transcendence, cannot be considered homo viator. Furthermore, the removal of physical hardship may undermine the ascetic and transformative dimensions of pilgrimage. The analysis of cyberpilgrimage suggests that, while psychologically engaging, virtual experiences do not replace the sacramental and embodied nature of spiritual journeys. This study contributes to the discourse on spirituality in the digital age, proposing a balanced approach that reconciles tradition with technological advancements while reaffirming the relevance of Thomistic anthropology in addressing contemporary challenges.
Copyright (c) 2026 Berenika Seryczyńska, Tomasz Duda https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Complexity at the Mesoscale: a Framework for Reflecting on Freedom and Vulnerability
Condensed matter nanoscience and nanotechnology have profoundly–transformed modern life, from advanced computing to biomedical applications.–In condensed matter, the mesoscale, here understood as the regime spanning–approximately nanometre to micrometre dimensions, marks a domain of structural–complexity, in which surface effects, collective phenomena, thermal fluctuations, and–nonlinear couplings often operate at comparable energy scales. In such a regime, no–single interaction term typically dominates the effective physical description, and–simplified asymptotic reductions give way to multiscale and numerically intensive–modelling approaches. Observable behaviour may therefore not be exhausted by–closed-form reduction without implying any suspension of underlying physical law.–Despite its scientific importance, the mesoscale has received comparatively little–philosophical attention. Philosophical and theological reflection has traditionally–concentrated on the cosmic scale, where gravitational order suggests intelligibility,–or on the quantum scale, where formal indeterminacy has prompted discussions–of contingency and divine action. By contrast, the mesoscale has received–comparatively less attention, even though biological organisation and embodied–human existence crucially depend upon processes operating within the mesoscale–regime.–This paper proposes that mesoscale complexity offers a fruitful context for revisiting–questions of freedom, suffering, and the privation of good. Rather than opposing 14(1)/2026–scientific explanation and metaphysical meaning, the mesoscale is presented not as–a distinct ontological realm, but as a structurally intermediate regime in which stable–laws and dynamical openness coexist, thereby inviting renewed dialogue between–philosophy of science, natural philosophy, and theology.
Copyright (c) 2026 Miro https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
A Scientist’s Perspective on the Intertwining of Science, Faith, Free Will, and the Message of the Shroud of Turin
The 5-square-meter flax fabric known as the Shroud of Turin is one of the most sacred religious icons on Earth, and one of the most debated subjects in science. Here we summarize and translate into simple terms the state of the art of scientific studies on the Shroud of Turin with regard to the body imprint and the age of the Shroud fabric. Based on the available results, we discuss whether science can determine if the imprint on the Shroud was left by the historical Jesus. Then, we argue the intriguing possibility that the Shroud is a peculiar example of how the rules and constraints of the scientific method can corroborate the concept of faith and free will, and discuss the reasons why the Shroud's message cannot be limited to the issue of authenticity.
Copyright (c) 2026 Paolo Di Lazzaro, Daniele Murra https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
The Passion and Death of Jesus Christ: a Pathophysiological and Forensic Approach in Dialogue with Johannine Theology
The Passion and death of Jesus Christ represent a central event of Christian faith and, at the same time, a historical reality open to medical and forensic analysis. This article proposes an integrated approach that brings together pathophysiology, forensic medicine, and theological reflection, using the Gospel of John as its primary hermeneutical framework. Through an examination of scourging, crucifixion, and the piercing of the side, the study analyzes the main pathophysiological mechanisms potentially involved in Jesus’ death, including hypovolemic shock, respiratory failure, metabolic collapse, lung injury, and stress-induced cardiomyopathy associated with extreme catecholaminergic discharge. These findings are discussed in light of contemporary medical-forensic literature and correlated with scientific studies of the Shroud of Turin and the Sudarium of Oviedo, whose features show a remarkable coherence with the Gospel narratives. Finally, the article offers a theological and anthropological reflection on Christ’s bodily suffering, arguing that the extreme vulnerability of the crucified body constitutes not merely a biological phenomenon but a privileged theological locus revealing the redemptive meaning of human suffering. In this way, the study aims to contribute to the dialogue between science and faith by demonstrating the value of a rigorous interdisciplinary approach.
Copyright (c) 2026 Alfonso Canabal Berlanga https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Natural Disasters, Anthropogenic Climate Change, and Divine Responsibility
In this contribution, we pose three questions. The first is whether anthropogenic climate change is producing natural disasters. The second is whether all human beings are responsible for this climate change—and, therefore, for natural disasters. The third is to what extent God bears responsibility for the natural disasters caused by climate change. To the first, we answer: yes, there is anthropogenic climate change causing the current natural disasters. To the second: no, not all human beings are responsible. To the third: God is not responsible for natural disasters. We will attempt to justify these three answers.
Copyright (c) 2026 Bernardo Pérez Andreo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Theology Trying to Make Sense of Natural Disasters
Natural disasters present a significant challenge to engaged theology, particularly following the decline of traditional explanations that relied on the model of divine punishment. The ongoing occurrence of such catastrophes has become a scandal and is frequently used as a critique of divine providence and goodness. In response, theology has moved beyond earlier models to develop more nuanced answers, drawing on alternative frameworks that offer greater flexibility and depth, after considering merits and flaws of available theodicies. This article reviews contemporary theological approaches to the problem of natural disasters and explores new opportunities provided by research on the function of religion, religious coping mechanisms, and the processes of belief.
Copyright (c) 2026 Lluis Oviedo Oviedo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
This paper revisits our understanding of natural evil and its related defences in the light of relatively new evidence in Complex Systems Science and Science and Technology Studies. Complex Systems Science shows unpredictability is a necessary feature of a universe open to innovation and the emergence of life and consciousness. This casts the Free Process, Natural Order, and Process Defences in a fresh light: God created a truly free cosmos, governed by dependable laws that, however, foster novelty and growth, and natural evil is a necessary by‑product of a living, adaptive creation. In addition, overcoming natural evil has been the key force in developing Science and Technology. Understanding this strengthens the Better Goods and Soul-making Defences by showing that hardship fuels our drive for insight and creating supportive communities. These insights present evil not as a punishment or an anomaly but as an intrinsic component of a dynamic creation that invites both divine freedom and human responsibility.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sara Lumbreras https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
When religion and science lose their cultural significance, efficacy or attractivity in explaining the tragedy of natural disasters, an alternative proposal arises, that of conspiracy theories. This article seeks to interpret the contemporary popularity of conspiracy thinking as a kind of alternative theodicy and a serious challenge for Christian theology. For this purpose, the article presents an overview of current discussions regarding the relation between religion and conspiracy theories, with particular emphasis on the theological dimension of the problem. An examination of affinities and differences between science, religious explanation and conspiracy mentality helps to better understand the roots and main features of conspiracism in the contemporary world. It also allows us to revisit an old accusation that finds traditional religion culpable of susceptibility to conspiratorial thinking. This view can be contrasted with another perspectives which links the culture of conspiracy with new and esoteric spiritual movements or with modern rationalism or postmodern culture of suspicion. All these considerations show the limitations of simplified dialectics of religion and rationality and highlight some essential characteristics of a theological reflection on natural disasters and theodicy. The issues discussed bring up some ideas regarding the credibility of Christianity and point to the possible contribution of theology in the current discussion on conspiracism.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mateusz Switek https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0